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bread and the sword of Goliath when he fled from Saul, and in consequence was slain at Doeg's instigation (1 Sam. xxi., xxii.). 2. A Hittite who was one of David's followers in the wilderness of Zuph (2 Sam. xxvi. 6). C. A-hith'-o-phel (brother of foolishness), a wise counsellor and friend of David, regarded by all as an oracle. He joined in the conspiracy of Absalom, but his shrewd advice was defeated by the counsel of Hushai, whereupon, foreseeing failure, he deliberately took his own life (2 Sam. xvi., xvii.).

Ahlfeld, Johann Friedrich, D.D., Lutheran, b. at Mehringen, Anhalt, Nov. 1, 1810; d. at Leipzig, March 4, 1884. He studied at Halle, 1830-33; became gymnasial teacher at Zerbst, 1834; rector of the city school in Wörlitz, 1837; there converted he became successively pastor at Alsleben, 1838, at Halle, 1847, and at Leipzig, 1851. His reputation as preacher and pastor was that of one of the best men in the Lutheran pulpit. He published several volumes of his sermons, which had a large sale. Cf. his Lebensbild, Halle, 1885.

Aidan (a ́-dan), Celtic apostle of Northumbria and first bishop of Lindisfarne; was monk at Hy or Iona, until consecrated bishop, 635; very successful in spreading Christianity, mainly by reason of the purity and kindliness of his own life; built a monastery on the island of Lindisfarne; d. at Bamborough, opposite, Aug. 31, 651. (See life by A. C. Fryer, London, 1884.)

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Ailli (al'-ye), Pierre d', b. in North France in 1350; d. at Avignon, Aug. 9, 1420. He was a student in Paris, began to lecture there in 1375, and became doctor and professor of theology in 1380. His writings at this time deal with the schism of the church, and declare that the constitutive quality of the church is not its relation to Peter or to the canon law, but to Christ and the Scriptures. He objected also to the doctrine of the infallibility of the pope, and voiced the demand of the University party for a general council; and thus we have at the beginning of his career those lines of conduct suggested which he pursued to its close. He was advanced to one position in the university and the court after another, till finally, in 1397, Benedict XIII. made him archbishop of Cambrai. He exerted his influence to persuade the pope to abdica tion, but in vain. He finally saw that a gen eral council was the only means of help, and yet foresaw the danger which actually resulted at Pisa in the creation of three popes, unless the general consent of Christendom could be first obtained. Made cardinal (1411) by John XXIII., he was not diverted from his plans to secure a reformation of the church, and in the Council of Constance led the opposition till John abdicated. He then devoted his time to doctrinal matters, presided over the trial and condemnation of Huss, and finally consented to proceed to the choice of pope before the enactment of reforms, and thus defeated ultimately all reform. His last years were spent as papal legate at Avignon. (See his life by Paul Tschackert. Gotha, 1877.)

F.

Aitken, William Hay Macdowall Hunter,

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Aix-la-Chapelle. See AACHEN.

herd, who became a famous rabbi, president Al-i-bà, Ben Joseph, a Jerusalem shepof the seminary at Bene Berak, near Joppa, reputed author of several treatises now in the Talmud, and so much admired as to give rise to the saying, "What was not revealed to Moses was revealed to Akiba." He joined Barkochba, and being taken prisoner was flayed alive by the Romans, t. 120 (?), A.D. 135. (See the legendary biography in Hamburger, Real-Encyclopädie des Judenthums, II. Talmud Art., s.v.)

Akoimetoi. See ACMETÆ.

A'Lasco. See LASCO.

Al'ain de Lille (Alanus ab Insulis), b. at Lille, France (formerly Ryssel in Flanders), about 1114; became a Cistercian monk; lived most of his life in England, but died in the abbey of Citeaux about 1202. His extraordinary range of knowledge won him the epithet of Doctor universalis. His writings are numerous. (See list of chief in McClintock & Strong, s.v. Alan de l'Isle.)

Alan, Alanus. See above.

Alb. 1. The long white tunic (symbol of purity) which the Roman priest wears over his black gown at mass, corresponding to the surplice of the Episcopal Church. 2. The white dress worn at baptism in the early church by the catechumens, and subsequently performed, until the first Sunday after Easter, from Easter eve, when baptism was usually hence called Dominica in albis ("Sunday in white").

Alban, St., name of several saints of the Catholic Church. One of them is the protomartyr of England, said to have been a soldier in Diocletian's army, converted, and to have perished in the persecutions in the year 303. His day is June 22. F.

Erasmus, b. about 1500, in the county of BüAl-ber (Latin, Alberus). Lutherans. 1. dingen; d. as general superintendent at Neubrandenburg, May 5, 1553. His best known book is Der Barfuser Münche Eulenspiegel und Alcoran, Frankfort, 1542, prepared by Luther; Eng. trans., The Alcoran of the Barefote Friers, London, 1550, which is a translation of Bartholomew Albizzi's (of Pisa) widely circulated book, Liber conformitatum vitæ S. Venice, n.d., 3 ed,, 1481), in which Francis of Francisci ad vitam Jesu Christi, 1339 (printed, riched his translation by a merciless exposure Assisi is compared to Jesus Christ. Alber enof Albizzi's lies and exaggerations, and thus

caused the Franciscans to reissue the book

in an expurgated form and under a different title. Alber was also unsparing in his ridicule

of the doctrinal differences between the Protestant churches. 2. Matthaus, Lutheran, b.

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at Reutlingen, Würtemberg, Dec. 4, 1495; introduced the Reformation there, 1524; left in consequence of the Interim, 1548; became chief pastor at Stuttgart; then abbot of Blaubeuren, 1563; d. there Dec. 2, 1570. (See his life by J. Hartmann, Tübingen, 1863.)

Albert of Riga, bishop of Livonia, whither, as canon of Bremen, he had led a crusade (1200). He founded Riga and the order of the Brothers of the Sword; d. 1196.

ALEXANDER

of which has been restored, however; in 1835 it was changed from an ecclesiastical to a court order, and has been since 1878 a reward for military service.

Alcuin (al-kwin), b. at York, Eng., 735; d. at Tours, France, May 19, 804; the most prominent of the scholars whom Charlemagne gathered about his court. His education was at his birthplace, York, where he subsequently presided over the cathedral school, and later in 781 he met Charlemagne at Parma and enwas made librarian. On a journey to Rome tered his service. From this time on he cultivated every department of science under Charlemagne's patronage He mingled in the the

Iconoclastic (see art. CAROLINE BOOKS) and the Adoptionist. In 796 he received the Abbey of St. Martin of Tours, where he made the monastery school the principal place of learnThree Books upon the Trinity, and his coming in the empire. His chief writings are his mentaries upon various portions of the Scripcupies simply the theological position of his tures. He is not an independent thinker, ocday, and is distinguished mainly for extensive reading and industry. Grammar, orthography, astronomy, and Latin poetry busied him also. Though not a monk, he favored monasticism, and could not distinguish between the call of duty to a religious life in the world and the necessity of escaping it for spiritual safety. Yet at times this view of life was modified by his literary and scriptural studies. (See his life by Lorentz, London, 1837; and J. B. Mullinger's The Schools of Charles the Great, London, 1877.)

Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus), b. at Lauingen, 26 m. n.w. of Augsburg, Bavaria, 1193; d. at Cologne, Nov. 15, 1280; "Universal Doctor," founder of the most flourishing period of scholasticism. He studied in Padua, and there entered the Dominicanological controversies of the times, such as the order. Though his life was in general that of a scholar (1243, teacher in Cologne in the Dominican school; 1245, master of theology at Paris; 1248, again in Cologne as rector of the school), he filled many public offices (general of the Dominicans for Germany, 1254; bishop of Ragensburg, 1260). He spent his last 18 years principally in Cologne in his monastery engaged in writing. His chief service as a literary man was in the introduction of Aristotle to the acquaintance of his age. Obtain ing his own knowledge from the Arabic commentators, he reproduced Aristotle's ideas, supplementing them, and particularly in the department of natural science greatly improving them. As a theologian he is noted for his writings upon general questions, such as the immortality of the soul, for his commentaries upon the Scriptures, his ethical writings, and his more properly dogmatic works. The Christian system rests upon experience, but it stands in need of proofs to confirm the believer, lead the inquirer to faith, and to convince the unbeliever. The system is the Roman orthodoxy of the Middle Ages. In the contest between Nominalism and Realism, Albert is to be reckoned to neither party. He teaches that the universal is before the individual thing in the plan of God, in the thing and after the thing as the product of our thought. (See his collected works, ed. Jammy, Lyons, 1651, 21 vols. fol. See life by Sighart, Eng. trans. by Dixon, London, 1876.)

Albertus Magnus. See above.
Albigenses. See CATHARI.

F.

Albright (original, Albrecht), Jacob, founder of the Evangelical Association of North America (see METHODISTS); b. near Pottstown, Pa., May 1, 1759; d. at Mühlbach, Lebanon Co., Pa., May 8, 1808. He was a tile-maker when in 1790 he was converted and joined the Methodist Church. In 1796 he began preaching among the Germans, and was wonderfully successful. In 1807 he was ordained bishop

of the church he had founded.

Albright Brethren. See "Evangelical Association" under METHODISTS.

Alcantara, the Ecclesiastical Knightly Order of, founded in the 12th century, in Alcantara, Spain, primarily for defence against the Moors. For a time it had a brilliant membership. In 1540 the knights were allowed by Pope Paul III. to marry. In 1808 Joseph Bonaparte deprived the order of all its property, part

F.

Al-e-an-der, Hieronymus, b. at Motta, ncar Treviso, Italy, 1480; famed as a scholar, particularly in Greek; became librarian to the Vatican, 1518; later archbishop of Brindisi, 1524, and cardinal, 1538; d. at Rome, Jan. 31, 1542. He was papal legate at the Diet at Worms in 1521, and tried hard to manage it in the papal interest. (Cf. Theod. Brieger, Aleander u. Luther, 1521, Gotha, 1884; Kalkoff, Die Depeschen der Nuntius Aleander, Halle, 1886.)

Al'-e-si-us (see-us), Alexander (variants of name, Aless, Alesse, ab Ales, Alane), Lutheran divine; b. in Edinburgh, April 23, 1500; educated at the university of St. Andrew's, and became canon; appointed to refute Patrick Hamilton (q.v.), he was shaken by him in his Romanism; in consequence persecuted and compelled to flee (1532); became a Lutheran and lived at Wittenberg; returned to England (1535); lectured in divinity at Cambridge; later practised medicine in London; returned to Germany, 1540; became professor of theology first at Frankfort on the Oder, then at Leipzig, 1543; d. there Nov. 29, 1560. "His chief distinction is that while in his career as an advocate of the new learning, he was courageous when courage was needed; he possessed a flexibility of mind and a moderation of sentiment rare among the reformers, and not least so among those of his native land." (Cf. Dict. Nat. Biog., s.v.)

Alexander, popes of this name. 1. Bishop of Rome 109 (?)-119 (?) 2. (Anselm of Lucca),

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Pope 1061-73, was raised to the papal see by Hildebrand. The imperial party nominated an anti-pope who took the name of Honorius II. By the efforts of Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, Alexander was finally universally acknowledged, but Hanno did not receive proper gratitude from him. The emperor, Henry IV., also received treatment which might serve as a foretaste of what he would suffer at the hands of Hildebrand subsequently. Invested bishops were compelled to give up their offices upon charge of simony. This pope favored the attempt of William the Conqueror upon England. He gave the English bishoprics to Normans, and thus strengthened William's power. 3. (Roland), Pope 115981, belonged to the anti-imperial party as cardinal. A personal conflict with Frederick I. of Germany, at Besançon, in 1057, where he had defended the position of the pope, Hadrian IV., that the imperial power was a beneficium" of the papacy, led, when he had been elevated to the papal see, to great complications. An anti-pope, Victor IV., was set up, whom two other anti-popes followed. Alexander was even compelled at one time to leave Italy and seek help in France. But finally the emperor was compelled to yield. The campaign which had resulted in setting Paschal III. upon the papal throne ended disastrously, (1166), the second expedition of Frederick into Italy ended in the defeat of Legnano (1176), and on Aug. 1, 1177, Alexander was knowledged as pope. Still he did not occupy the high position which Hadrian IV. had claimed for the papacy. A still more striking victory was gained by Alexander over Henry II. of England in the case of Thomas Becket (q.v.), who had maintained the interests of the church against the king. After his murder by agents of the king, Henry was compelled to do shameful penance, and to return to the church the property confiscated. (Life by Reuter, Leipzig, 2d ed., 1860-64, 3 vols.) 4. (Rinaldo de Conti), Pope 1254-61, was also involved in a contest with the Hohenstauffen. Frederick II. had addressed him while yet cardinal as a friend, and Conrad IV. intrusted him with the guardianship of his son Conradin. But he stirred up the Swabian princes to choose Alphonso of Castile as their duke, excommunicated Manfred when he attempted to defend Conradin's rights in Sicily, and even gave away some of Conradin's lands as a papal fief. He also interfered in the affairs of the German Empire. The trouble with the Hohenstauffen led to the appearance of the Flagellants (q.v.) in Rome. 5. (Peter Philargi), Pope 1409-10, was created pope by the Council of Pisa (q.v.) under the solemn promise to continue the council till it should effect a thorough reformation of the church in head and members. But he immediately dismissed the council. Since the other popes did not submit to their deposition, the council only made the schism worse-three popes instead of two. His chief official act was to increase the rights of the mendicant monks in hearing confessions. 6. (Rodrigo Lanzol), Pope 1492-1503, the most profligate of all the popes. As bishop of Valencia and cardinal he had at least 7 children, of whom Cæsar and Lucretia

(Borgia) have been most famous. As pope he continued his loose life, though besought by Savonarola, as well as by kings, to reform the papal court. He gave to Spain all the lands to be discovered beyond 100 m. west of Cape Verd. His most characteristic deeds were wrought in connection with his son Cæsar, for whom he consented to every form of evil. Cæsar was cardinal as long as he liked, during which time he did not abstain from murder, and then (1498) married and became a secular prince. To obtain a principality, then duchy, and finally kingdom of "Romagna," neither Cæsar nor the pope shrunk from any measure. But cre the result was reached Alexander was removed by death, being probably poisoned. 7. (Fabio Chigi), Pope 1655-67. As cardinal he was engaged in the negotiations leading to the peace of Westphalia, but took a position of implacable hostility to the Protestants. In consequence of his representations the pope refused to confirm the concessions made to them. As might have been expected, as pope he favored the Jesuits especially and opposed the Jansenists. Involved in war with France, he was obliged, in the peace of Pisa (1664), to submit to humiliating demands. 8. (Pietro Ottoboni), Pope 1689-91, elevated by the influence of France to the papal chair. He succeeded in nullifying the four propositions made in 1682 as to the freedom of the Gallican Church. A real service to the cause of morals was rendered by his condemnation of the Jesuit doctrine of a philosophic sini.e., one which was committed without conscious purpose to offend God, and which was therefore venial.

F.

Alexander, illustrious Presbyterian ministerial family. 1. Archibald, D.D. (Princeton, 1810), b. near Timber Ridge, Augusta (now Rockbridge) Co., Va., April 17, 1772; d. at Princeton, N. J., Oct. 22, 1851. He was educated at Lexington, Va. (Liberty Hall Academy); became private tutor; itinerant pastor in Charlotte and Prince Edward counties, 1792; president of Hampden-Sydney College, Va., 1796; pastor of the Pine street Presbyterian church, Philadelphia, 1807; first professor in the Theological Seminary, Princeton, N. J., 1812. He did a great work in the last position, leaving an indelible impression. His writings were numerous; in book form appeared A Brief Outline of the Evidences of the Christian Religion, Princeton, 1823 (later edd. trans. into foreign languages); The Canon of the Old and New Testaments Ascertained, 1826; A Pocket Dictionary of the Bible, Philadelphia, 1829; Biographical Sketches... of the Log College, Princeton, 1845; Outlines of Moral Science, New York, 1852. (Cf. iife by J. W. Alexander, New York, 1854.) 2. James Waddel, D.D. (Lafayette, 1843), his eldest son; b. near Gordonsville, Louisa Co., Va., March 13, 1804; d. at Red Sweet Springs, Va., July 31, 1859. Educated at Princeton College and Theological Seminary, became pastor at Trenton, N. J., 1829; editor of The Presbyterian, Philadelphia, 1832; professor of rhetoric in Princeton College, 1833; pastor of the Duane street Presbyterian church, New York City, 1844; professor of ecclestiastical history

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in Princeton Theological Seminary, 1849; pastor of the Fifth avenue Presbyterian church, New York City, 1851. He wrote the life of his father, and other volumes, of which Plain Words to a Young Communicant (New York, 1854) is perhaps best known. 3. Joseph Addison, D.D. (Rutgers College, 1844), another son, b. in Philadelphia, April 24, 1809; d. at Princeton, N. J., Jan. 28, 1860. Graduated head of his class at Princeton College, 1826; was adjunct professor of ancient languages there, 1830-33; and of oriental literature in the Theological Seminary, 1838-50, when he was transferred to the chair of biblical and ecclesiastical history. He was a remarkable linguist, and did much to introduce and popularize German theological learning, his commentaries on Isaiah, New York, 184647, 2 vols., ed. Eadie, Glasgow, 1875; Psalms, 1850, 3 vols.; Matthew, 1860; Mark, 1858; Acts, 1856; being almost transfusions of Hengstenberg and others. He was an admired preacher. (See his life by H. C. Alexander, New York, 1869, 2 vols.)

Alexander Nevski, a Russian prince and general, venerated as a saint in the Greek Church; b. at Vladimir, Central Russia, 1219; d. at Gorodetz, Nov. 14, 1263. He gained a great victory over the Swedes near the Neva in 1240, and was equally successful against his enemies elsewhere. The pope hoped by these military and other efforts to bring the Russians over to the Roman obedience, but Al

exander resisted all his blandishments.

F.

Alexander of Hales, b. in England; d. in Paris, Aug. 27, 1245; educated in the English monastery Hales, then at Paris, entered the Franciscan order in 1222. His only genuine printed work (e.g., Cologne, 1622) is his Summa Universæ Theologiæ, which first applies the entire range of Aristotle's philosophy to theology. It is a positive system, of mystical character, free in its treatment of the sacraments, but strong in its support of the papal see and the mendicant monks. F.

Alexandrian School, a distinct school of thought, which had its origin in an institution of Christian learning situated in the city of Alexandria in Egypt. The origin of the school is to be sought in the circumstances of the time and place. Alexandria was the intellectual centre where the learning and culture of

the East and West met. Philosophers abounded there, and as some of them were from time to time converted, their condition called upon the church for regular instruction in the principles of the Christian religion; hence the school, to which young Christians would resort when once it was established. Here, too, the future ministers of the church would be educated, her future leaders, bishops, and theologians. Thus it was that in the earliest times (tradition says in the time of the evangelist Mark) a school was established in Alexandria, over which successively Pantænus, Clement, Origen, Heraclas, and Dionysius, and then others presided, till about the end of the 4th century. It is said that among the later teachers of the school even Arius is found. The system of the school was like that of other schools of its day. Salaries were not paid the

ALFORD

instructors, but wealthy pupils gave them honorary gifts. The dwellings of the teachers were used as the places of instruction. The method of instruction was by conversations or more formal lectures. The spirit of the school was free and its attitude toward all learning friendly. It drew from the old Jew ish theology of Philo and from the philosophy of Greece. Gnosticism was not blindly opposed, but the effort was made to guide the labors of these speculators into more fruitful channels. Origen came to his deeper speculations from the standpoint of one trained from the beginning in Christian truth. To him is due the proposal of the doctrine of the eternal generation of the Son, as well as the attempt to give the Incarnation an ethical foundation in the theory of the union of the Logos with one pure pre-existent soul. Athanasius was a product of this school, and maintained, in opposition to Arius, the true divinity of the Son. The tendency of the school from this time on was to deeper studies in the profoundest doctrines of Christianity, whence it took the lead in the formulation of the Christology of the church. Cyril, the leader in the contest against Nestorius, saw clearly that the problem of Christology was to obtain a conception of a real union between the divine and historical person could be maintained. Hence, human in Christ, whereby the unity of his he insisted upon the one person after the Incarnation. This tendency of thought finally triumphed over that represented by the Antiochian school, and determined the trend of Christian theology, not only in the early ages, but even in our own day. In the exegetical labors of this school there is, especially among its earlier writers, an abundance of arbitrary allegorical fancies. Origen's services as a commentator were as great as those in the line of Christian speculation; but he was particularly given to the allegorical method of interpretation. Gregory Nazianzen and Gregory of Nyssa, with Basil "the Great," constitute a group of the most important adherents and literary coadjutors of the Alexandrian school. (See Charles Kingsley, Alexandria and her Schools, London, 1854.) F.

Alexians, from their patron saint, Alexius, Cellites, because they buried the dead in cella a lay order in the Roman Church; also called (graves); founded in Antwerp by Tobias, about the middle of the 14th century, for the Black Sisters belong to this order. care of the sick, the dying, and the dead. The

66

Alford, Henry, D.D. (Cambridge, 1859), Church of England, dean of Canterbury; b. in London, Oct. 7, 1810; d. at Canterbury, Jan. 12, 1871. Educated at Cambridge, he became fellow of Trinity, 1834; vicar of Wymeswold, 1835; minister of Quebec Chapel, Marylebone, London, 1853; dean of Canterbury, 1857. 'He was a man of various accomplishments. He composed pieces for the piano and organ, and vocal music; he both sang and played himself. He had considerable mechanical skill, and he carved in wood. He also was a water-color painter. . . . He had great facility in preaching, and adopted various styles. . . . He adopted distinctly the

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Protestant basis for his religious and ecclesias- others), who sought in this way to unite Judaic tical convictions, and took pains to recognize institutions with Hellenic culture. The meththe leading Nonconformist ministers (not ex- od no doubt was suggested to them by their cepting the Unitarians), by whom his generous heathen neighbors, who, finding objectionable feeling was fully reciprocated. . . . His Greek passages in Homer, were wont to explain all Testament [London, 1849-61, 4 vols. 6th ed., these away as containing myths and sacred vol. 1, 1868; vol. 2, 1871; 5th ed., vol. 3, enigmas, and thus made the poet speak the 1871; 4th ed., vol. 4, 1870] and other biblical language of the philosophers. Philo carried works, however, constitute his chief claim to the system to the fullest extent, rarely abiding gratitude and fame.' Dict. Nat. Biog., s.v. by the plain meaning of the simplest narraHe was among the first to utilize German New tives, and in the end effecting a complete perTestament learning, and by so doing made an version of Scripture. From these the method epoch. His other works include New Testa- passed over to the Christian Fathers of the ment for English Readers, London, 1868, 4 | Alexandrine school, of whom the most famous vols.; Book of Genesis, 1872; A Plea for the were Clemens and Origen. The latter went Queen's English, 1863, 3d ed., 1870; Sermons so far as to say: "The Scriptures are of little and Poems, 5th ed., 1868. (See his Life, Lon- use to them who understand them in the litdon, 1873.) eral sense. His influence was wide and deep, Alfred the Great, king of the West Saxons; and its effects may be traced in all the Greek b. at Wantage, in Berkshire, 849; d. at Win and Latin fathers, and even in the schoolmen, chester, Oct. 28, 901. He succeeded his but for the most part ceased at the Reformabrother, 871, and was involved in incessant tion. At the present time the allegorical methwars with the Danes. He made it his busi-od of interpretation is a mere name. ness to be the spiritual and intellectual teacher of his people. He undertakes the humbic office of a translator [Boetius, Consolation of Philosophy; Bede and Orosius, History; Gregory the Great, Pastoral Care] and turns into his native tongue such writings, religious, historical, and scientific, as he thinks will tend to the instruction of his people. . . . He did all that he could for the advancement of learning by planting the best scholars in the monasteries, which were the schools of the time, and by giving some of them high ecclesiastical preferment. (Cf. Freeman in Stephen, Dict. Nat. Biog., s. v. Thomas Hughes, Alfred the Great, London and Boston, 1869.)

Al-ger of Liege, h. at Liege (?), 1055 (?); d. at Clugny, 1145 (?); known also as Alger of Clugny; was a scholar who taught in various positions in Liege, and in 1121 entered the Convent of Clugny. He left a number of writings behind him, of which the most important is his treatise upon the sacrament, which was edited by Erasmus, Basel, 1530. (See Migne, Pat. Lat. CLXXX., pp. 739 sqq. Life by H. Huffer, Münster, 1862.) F.

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Alienation, ecclesiastically speaking, is the improper disposal of such lands and goods as have become the property of the church; alienation in mortmain, the conveying or mak ing over lands or tenements to any religious house or other corporate body." (Hook.)

Allah, the Mohammedan name for God, contracted from the Arabic al ilah, "the God." Al-la-ti-us, Leo, Roman Catholic, noted for his attempts to bring about a union between the Greek and Latin churches; b. of a schismatical Greek family, on the island of Scio, 1586; entered the Roman Church; studied at Rome theology, medicine, and classical studies; brought the so-called Heidelberg Library to Rome, 1622; made librarian of the Vatican, 1661; d. in Rome, Jan. 19, 1669.

Allegorical Interpretation of the Scriptures, that which finds a mystic sense below the surface of the sacred writings. It originated with the Jews of Alexandria (Philo and

C.

Allegory, a representation in which the words express something beyond their direct and obvious meaning. The finest example in English literature is Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. In pure allegory the object aimed at is never directly expressed. There is always a twofold sense: the immediate or historic which is understood from the words, and the ultimate which is concerned with the things signified by the words. The allegorical interpretation is not of the words, but of what they signify, and may very well co-exist with a literal interpretation. Thus, when the Apostle (Gal. iv. 24) speaks of a passage in Genesis as an allegory, he does not mean that the history sides this, the events narrated have another is unreal as to the literal meaning, but that, beand spiritual signification.

C.

Alleine, Joseph, Nonconformist; b. at Devizes, 86 m. w. of London, early in 1634; d. at Taunton, Nov. 17, 1668. Educated at Oxford, he became tutor and chaplain of his college (Corpus Christi), 1653; junior pastor at Taunton, 1654; was ejected for non-conformity, 1662, and afterward repeatedly imprisoned for preaching. He was in his day eminent as the author of the Alarm to the Unconverted a preacher and also as a scientist, but it is as (London, 1672, 20,000 sold; n.e. under title,

Sure Guide to Heaven, 1675, 50,000 sold;

many editions since) that he is now affectionately and gratefully remembered. (See his life by Stanford, London, 1861.)

Allen, Henry, b. at Newport, R. I., June 14, 1748; d. at Northampton, N. H., Feb. 2, 1784. In 1774 and succeeding years he preached through Nova Scotia the notions that human souls are emanations of the one great Spirit; that Adam and Eve, before the fall, were pure spirits; that Christ never was raised, nor will any other body be, and that the Bible is to be taken spiritually. He published hymns and sermons, and made many converts.

Allen, William, D.D. (Douay, 1571), Roman Catholic, cardinal; b. at Rossall, 1532: d. in Rome, Oct. 16, 1594. Became B.A. and fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, 1550; princi

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