Part III. when one of the Premiffes in a Syllogifm is queftioned and oppofed, and we intend to prove it by the Conclufion: Or, when in a Train of Syllogisms we prove the last by recurring to what was the Conclufion of the first. The Papists are famous at this Sort of Fallacy, when they prove the Scripture to be the Word of God by the Authority or infallible Teftimony of their Church; and when they are called to fhew the infallible Authority of their Church, they pretend to prove it by the Scripture.

IV. The next kind of Sophifm is called non Caufa pro Causâ, or the Affignation of a falle Cause. This the Peripatetic Philofophers were guilty of continually, when they told us that certain Beings, which they called fubftantial Forms, were the Springs of Colour, Motion, Vegetation, and the various Operations of natural Beings in the animate and inanimate World; when they informed us that Nature was terribly afraid of Vacuum, and that this was the Caufe why the Water would not fall out of a long Tube if it was turned upfide down: The Moderns as well as the Antients fall often into his Fallacy when they positively affign the Reafons of natural Appearances, without fufficient Experiments to prove them.

Aftrologers are over-run with this Sort of Fallacies, and they cheat the People grofly by pretending to tell Fortunes, and to deduce the Cause of the various Occurrences in the Lives of Men, from the various Pofitions of the Stars and Planets, which they call Afpects.

When Comets and Eclipfes of the Sun and Moon are conftrued to fignify the Fate of Princes, the Revolution of States, Famine, Wars and Calani

ties

ties of all Kinds, it is a Fallacy that belongs to this Rank of Sophifms.

There is fcarce any thing more common in human Life than this Sort of deceitful Argument. If any two accidental Events happen to concur, one is prefently made the Cause of the other. If Titius wronged his Neighbour of a Guinea, and in fix Months after he fell down and broke his Leg, weak Men will impute it to the divine Vengeance on Titius for his fortner Injuftice. This Sophifm was found alfo in the early Days of the World: For when holy Job was furrounded with uncommon Miferies, his own Friends inferred, that he was a moft beinous Criminal, and charged him with aggravated Guilt as the Caufe of his Calamities; tho' God himself by a Voice from Heaven folved this uncharitable Sophifin, and cleared his Servant Job of that Charge.

How frequent is it among Men to impute Crimes to wrong Perfons? We too often charge that upon the wicked Contrivance and premeditated Malice of a Neighbour, which arofe merely from Ignorance, or from unguarded Temper. And on the other hand, when we have a Mind to excufe ourselves, we practise the fame Sophifm, and charge that upon our Inadvertence or our Ignorance, which perhaps was defigned Wickedness. What is really done by a Neceffity of Circumftances, we fometimes impute to Choice: And again, we charge that upon Neceffity, which was really defired and chofen.

Sometimes a Perfon acts out of Judgment in Oppofition to his Inclination; his Inclination; another Perfon perhaps acts the fame Thing out of Inclination, and against his Judgment. It is hard for us to determine with Affurance what are the inward

Part III. Springs and fecret Causes of every Man's Conduct; and therefore we should be cautious and flow in paffing a Judgment, where the Cafe is not exceeding evident: And if we should mistake, let it rather be on the charitable than on the cenforious Side.

'Tis the fame Sophifm that charges mathematical Learning with leading the Minds of Men to Scepticism and Infidelity, and as unjustly accuses the new Philofophy of paving the Way to Herefy and Schifm. Thus the Reformation from Popery has been charged with the Murder and Blood of Millions, which in Truth is to be imputed to the Tyranny of the Princes and the Priests, who would not fuffer the People to reform their Sentiments and their Practices according to the Word of God. Thus Christianity in the primitive Ages was charged by the Heathens with all the Calamities which befel the Roman Empire, because the Chriftians renounced the Heathen Gods and Idols.

The Way to relieve ourselves from these Sophifms, and to fecure ourselves from the Danger of falling into them, is an honeft and diligent Enquiry into the real Nature and Caufes of Things, with a conftant Watchfulness against all thofe Prejudices that might warp the Judgment afide from Truth in that Enquiry.

V. The next is called fallacia Accidentis, or a Sophifm wherein we pronounce concerning the Nature and effential Properties of any Subject according to fomething which is merely accidental to it. This is akin to the former, and is also very frequent in human Life. So if Opium or the Peruvian Bark has been used imprudently or unfuccefsfully,

fuccefsfully, whereby the Patient has received Injury, fome weaker People abfolutely pronounce against the Ufe of the Bark or Opium upon all Occafions whatsoever, and are ready to call them Poifon. So Wine has been the accidental Occafion of Drunkenness and Quarrels; Learning and Printing may have been the accidental Caufe of Sedition in a State; the Reading of the Bible by Accident hath been abused to promote Herefies or deftructive Errors; and for thefe Reasons they have been all pronounced evil Things. Mahomet forbad his Followers the Ufe of Wine; the Turks dif courage Learning in their Dominions; and the Papifts forbid the Scripture to be read by the Laity. But how very unreafonable are thefe Inferences, and thefe Prohibitions which are built upon them!

VI. The next Sophifm borders upon the former; and that is, when we argue from that which is true in particular Circumstances to prove the fame thing true abfolutely, fimply, and abstracted from all Circumstances; this is called in the Schools a Sophifm a dicto fecundum quid ad dictum fimpliciter; as, That which is bought in the Shambles is eaten for Dinner; raw Meat is bought in the Shambles; therefore raw Meat is eaten for Dinner. Or thus, Livy writes Fables and Improbabilities when he defcribes Prodigies and Omens; therefore Livy's Roman Hiftory is never to be believed in any thing. Or thus, There may be fome Mistake of Transcribers in Jome Part of Scripture; therefore Scripture alone is not a fafe Guide for our Faith.

This Sort of Sophifm has its Reverse alfo; as, when we argue from that which is true fimply and abfolutely to prove the fame thing true in all parti

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cular Circumstances whatsoever; as if a Traytor fhould argue from the fixth Commandment, Thou fhall not kill a Man, to prove that he himself ought not to be hanged: Or if a Madman fhould tell me, I ought not to withhold his Sword from him, becaufe no Man ought to withhold the Property of another.

These two laft Species of Sophifms are easily solved by fhewing the Difference betwixt Things in their abfolute Nature, and the fame Things furrounded with peculiar Circumftances, and confidered in Regard to fpecial Times, Places, Perfons and Occafions; or by fhewing the Difference between a moral and a metaphyfical Univerfality, and that the Propofition will hold good in one Cafe, but not in the other.

VII. The Sophisms of Compofition and Divifion come next to be mentioned.

The Sophifm of Compofition is when we infer any thing concerning Ideas in a compounded Senfe, which is only true in a divided Senfe. And when it is faid in the Gospel that Christ made the Blind to fee, and the Deaf to hear, and the Lame to walk, we ought not to infer hence that Chrift performed Contradictions; but those who were blind before were made to fee, and those who were deaf before were made to hear, &c. So when the Scripture affures us the worst of Sinners may be faved, it fignifies only that they who have been the worst of Sinners may repent and be faved, not that they shall be saved in their Sins. Or if any one should argue thus, Two and three are even and odd; five

*This is arguing from a moral Univerfality which admits of fome Exceptions, in the fame manner as may be argued from metaphyfical or a natural Univerfality, which admits of no Exceptions.

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