their own experience. They know the windows, and seats, and desks, without any teaching; and will never call a desk a seat, or the contrary. For what purpose should he consider separately, and name, all the parts of the window; the pulley, the catch, the sash-bolt? What interest have they in these? Such details and names may be left to the glazier, the carpenter, and the locksmith. Every trade is a little separate people, with a peculiar language; but all these separate people understand each other, not in their trade-language, but in the language of their country. The trade-language belongs to the peculiar employment of each trade; each one has to do with many things which have no concern with the others, and can not concern them, unless they neglect their own business. And fellow-tradesmen discuss the matters of their trade, in their peculiar trade-language. Justus Möser, who had an eminently sound understanding, says,* "My miller played me yesterday a comical trick. He came to my window and said that there must be four iron nuts on the standards and standard-pieces, opposite the crank; and all the frames, boxes, bolting-cloths, and springs wanted fixing; one of the iron post-belts will not work any longer with the shifting-piece, and -.' He spoke German, my friend, and I understood well enough that he was talking about a windmill; but I am no windmill-builder, to understand the thousand details of a mill, and their names. But at that point the knave began to laugh, and said, with a queer gesture, that the pastor did the same thing on Sundays; that he spoke nothing but learned words, that took the very hearing and seeing away from the poor people; and that he would do better, he thought, to do as he (the miller) did, and furnish good meal to the parish, and keep his terms of art for architects."

The application to this sort of "intuitional instruction" is clear; and is doubly forcible because the teachers are not architects, and only affect a knowledge of these technical matters.

A remark of Herr Roth is very true, and very applicable to the present object. He says, "There are many things which, when rapidly discussed, on a proper occasion, are interesting to children; when, if studied by the hour, and methodically taught and reviewed, they would be most wearisome to them. To ask, cursorily, What is the difference between this table and that one? is very well; but to be staring at tables and desks, year in and year out, and describing them, is quite another thing."

The word "stare" is precisely appropriate; the exercise is a lifeless and forced one. The window and its parts are reflected in the staring eyes of the stupified and wearied child; and his lifeless

• Patriotic Fantasies,” (Patriotische Phantasieen,) 3, 243.

repetition of what the teacher says over to him corresponds with the lifeless reflection in his eyes.

Close consideration will show that this sort of instruction is much more an exercise in language than of the senses, although one of the most unintellectual kind. The intuition in the case is only to give the teacher an opportunity to talk; and accordingly it makes little difference what the object exhibited is, whether a picture by Raphael or a tavern-sign, the Strasburg cathedral or a wretched stable. Words can be made about any thing and every thing. The inquiry is scarcely made, Whether any knowledge is gained by the intuition; and not at all, Whether a permanent remembrance is insured of the thing shown. Very few seem to have an idea how quiet, undisturbed, and often-repeated the bodily intuition must be, in order to the obtaining of such a recollection, for the mental assimilation of the thing shown; and how the pupil's words should be only the product of this assimilation. No one seems to consider this process of real generation of words. A piece of gypsum is shown to a boy; he is made to repeat three times, "That is gypsum;" and then the specimen is put aside, and it is fancied that the boy has an actual knowledge of gypsum.

It will now be asked, Should intuitional exercises be quite omitted in school? I reply, Such wooden, methodical exercises on desks and seats may be omitted, as may all drilling merely for the sake of the drill; and, further, so may all drilling that is to give practice in nothing except the mere use of words.* The hunter, the painter, the stone-cutter, &c., do not train their eyes, nor does the musician his ear, for the sake of training it. Children, properly instructed in natural knowledge and in drawing, will be sure to use their eyes; and, as they penetrate further and further into their subject, they will, in the most natural manner, arrive at an increased accuracy of expression for the objects which they perceive by their senses.

* Children are frequently found, especially in the common schools, who are as if dumb. How shall they be made to speak? I would recommend that they should be spoken to, not in a stiff school-fashion and school-tone, which would make them stupider than ever, but, as far as possible, in an entirely usual manner and tone, and on some common subject, which they understand, and on which questions may be put to them. Tables and desks may be used for this purpose, but not methodically analyzed.

XI. PROGRESS OF EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT.

[Translated from Raumer's "History of Pedagogy," for the American Journal of Education.]

1. PEDAGOGY.

HISTORY has made us acquainted with the very different eminent educators of the last century. We have seen that each of them had an ideal which he sought to attain; a more or less clear conception of a normal man, who was to be produced from each child, by his method of education.

Bacon defined art, "Man, added to things." A man, that is, who prints upon things the impress of his mind. Does the art of education come under this definition? Certainly not; for we should have to consider the children to be educated as mere material, upon which the educator is to impress his ideal, as the stone-cutter does on a block of marble. But we might define the art of education, very generally, in analogy to Bacon's definition, thus: "Man added to man."

In order to a correct understanding of this last definition, we must see clearly how it is related to the various ideals or normal men of the educators. Did not each of them, either consciously or unconsciously, seek to determine an ideal of the human race; a generic ideal, including all individuals; and would he not educate every child according to his generic character and ideal?

God is the educator of the human race. Man is created by him, and for him; the beginning, progress, and perfection of humanity are his work. And if the teacher would have his work endure, he must look to God's system of "education of the human race." But it will not suffice for the educator to look to the generic character and the destiny of humanity only; he must regard another point. Every child is born with bodily and mental peculiarities, which sharply distinguish it from all other children, although they all have the generic character. No two children were ever entirely alike; each one is an entirely peculiar, personified organism of natural endowments; a completely individual and personified vocation. An invisible and mysterious master forms each of them according to a separate ideal: a master who does not, as human artists do, first fashion his work and then neglect it, as something entirely separate from himself; but who continues to work within man, even until his death, to the end that he may become like his prototype, and may fulfill his vocation.

God cares for each individual with the same paternal love as for the whole human race.

The vocation of the educator is to become a conscientious and obedient fellow-laborer with the divine Master; to endeavor to know and to help forward the perfection of that ideal for whose realization the master has already planted the seed, the potentia, in the child. I repeat: The educator must look to His work, if his own work is to stand; that is, not to the scarcely-comprehensible work of God upon the whole human race, but to his work within every individual child to be educated.

God formed man after his own image; but, after the fall, it is said that Adam "begat a son in his own likeness, after his image; " not after the divine; flesh born of flesh, a human child, perverted from God. During all the thousands of years which have passed since Adam, only one child has lived who was sprung immediately from on high, and who, of his own power, grew in knowledge, in stature, and in favor with God and man; and who needed no education, but only care. All other men are invariably sinners from their youth up; and in all the image of God is removed away.

a restoration of the image of God, "This is the work of the regenerbεoũ yevvnova;) and, although a

The purpose of all education is, with which the new birth begins. ating, creating power of God, (ex mystery both in its origin and in its aims, (John iii., 8,) works upon the earth in a visible and unmistakable manner-a new creation, a new man." The mystery of its origin is the mystery of the sacrament of baptism, "the bath of regeneration." After that period there are two powers within the child, who commence the strife between the spirit and the flesh, the old and the new man; a strife of regeneration, which endures even to the end of life. Parents and teachers are the auxiliaries of the child in this contest. The problem of Christian pedagogy is, lovingly and wisely to watch, pray, and labor, that in the child the new man shall grow and be strengthened, and that the old man shall die.

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Thus it is that we understand the term man added to man."

But the church theory of baptism has been attacked; and, in our own times, anabaptist views have become widely disseminated. Many see, in baptism, only a symbolical act, by which the baptized

*Harless, "Ethics," 77.

† Larger Catechism. "The power and work of baptism are: the mortification of the old Adam, and afterward the resurrection of the new man. Which two are in progress throughout all the life; insomuch that the Christian life is nothing else than a daily baptism, begun once, but always in progress"

And J. Gerhard says, "Infants, in baptism, receive the first fruits of the spirit and the faith."

is preliminarily received among the members of the Christian church, without becoming one truly and actively, because he is yet inexperienced in faith. It is by confirmation that he becomes consciously an acting member of the church. To admit a grace of baptism, it is said, is to admit a magical operation of the sacraments.

On this subject I refer to the dogmatic theologians, especially to Luther; and shall here only observe as follows.

The difference respecting baptismal grace seems to proceed chiefly from the opinion that, if grace passes from God to man, the latter can not be entirely passive; but that God can not confer a spiritual gift, unless the recipient shall receive it with intelligent consciousness.

Let us turn for a moment from spiritual to natural endowments. Is it not a proverb that "Poets are born?" Must it not be confessed that, in the new-born infant Shakspeare, the potentia, the seed, of the greatest creative talents the world ever saw was slumbering, quiet and unobserved, just as there was once slumbering, in a small acorn, the potentia of the mighty oak of a thousand years, which now stands before us? And might we not reply to the masters in Israel, who doubt the existence of this potentia, "Ye do err, not knowing the power of God?" For to whom belongs the glory? Was the poet the intentional production of his parents? And could not God, who in so profoundly-mysterious and incomprehensible a manner blessed their union, confer an equally wonderful power upon the sacrament which he ordained ?*

Although I refer to dogmatic writers for the details of this theory, yet I may here observe that it is of the utmost importance to theologians. If Christian parents believe in the actual beginning of a new and sanctified life in their child, if they see in him a child of God, in whom the Holy Ghost works, they will educate him as a sanctified child of God, will teach him early to pray, and will make him acquainted with God's Word. But if they do not believe that the seed of a new life is in the child, if they consider him a “natural man, who receives nothing from the spirit of God," and as incapable of faith, they will proceed according to whether they are Christians or not. If not, they will bring up their child as a natural child of Rousseau's kind; a heathen child, in a heathen manner. But if they are, as is the case with baptists and anabaptists, they will still see in the child a heathen, but one who can early be brought to Christianity, by the Word, and by awakening addresses. In this manner they think of themselves to bring about the new birth, instead of considering,

*The unworthy manner in which the sacrament is often administered causes many to err. But if the king should send us a magnificent present by a foolish servant, incompetent to es timate it, would that diminish the value of the present