in India is remarkable, none of them are very INTROD, populous. In their present state of decline, none exceed the population of second-rate cities in Europe. Calcutta, without its suburbs, has only 265,000 inhabitants; and not more than two or three of the others can have above 200,000 fixed population.*

and sea

A tract, extending from 8° north latitude to 35°, Climate and varying in height from the level of the sea to sons. the summits of Hémaláya, must naturally include the extremes of heat and cold; but on the general level of India within the great northern chain, the diversity is comparatively inconsiderable.

The characteristic of the climate, compared to that of Europe, is heat. In a great part of the country the sun is scorching for three months in the year; even the wind is hot, the land is brown and parched, dust flies in whirlwinds, all brooks become dry, small rivers scarcely keep up a stream, and the largest are reduced to comparatively narrow channels in the midst of vast sandy beds.

In winter, slight frost sometimes takes place for an hour or two about sunrise; but this is only in the parts of the country which lie far north, or are much elevated above the sea. At a low level, if to

For Calcutta, see the Report of the House of Commons, October 11. 1831. For Benares, see Asiatic Researches, xvii. 474. 479., where it is stated that 200,000 constitutes the fixed population of the city and suburbs, and that 100,000 more may come in on the greatest occasions of pilgrimage.

The thermometer often rises above 100' during part of the hottest days. It has been known to reach 120°.

INTROD. Wards the south, the greatest cold in winter is only

moderate heat; and on an average of the whole of
India, it is not much more than what is marked
temperate on our thermometers; while the hottest
time of the day, even at that period, rises above
our summer heat. The cold, however, is much
greater to the feelings than would be supposed from
the thermometer.
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In the months which approach to neither extreme, the temperature is higher than in the heat of summer in Italy.

the climate of India is

"

The rains are brought

The next peculiarity in the periodical rainy season. from the Indian Ocean by a south-west wind, (or monsoon, as it is called,) which lasts from June to October. They are heaviest near the sea, especially in low countries, unless in situations protected by mountains. The coast of Coromandel, for instance, is sheltered from the south-west monsoon by the Ghats and the table land, and receives its supply of rain in October and November, when the wind blows from the north-east across the Bay of Bengal. The intenseness of the fall of rain can scarcely be conceived in Europe. Though it is confined to four months, and in them many days of every month, and many hours of every day, are fair, yet the whole fall of rain in India is considerably more than double that which is distributed over the whole twelve months in England.

The variations that have been mentioned divide the year into three seasons: the hot, the rainy, and

the cold, or rather temperate; which last is a good INTROD deal longer than either of the other two.

The fertile soil and rich productions of India Natural have long been proverbial. et Mag

produc tions.

Its forests contain many timber trees, among Trees. which the teak is, for ship building, and most other purposes, at least equal to the oak. The sál is a lofty and useful timber tree: sandal, ebony, and other rare and beautiful woods are found in different quantities, but often in profusion. Banyan trees, cotton trees*, sissoo (or blackwood trees), mangoes, tamarinds, and other ornamental and useful trees are scattered over the cultivated country. The bábul, (Mimosa Arabica, or gum arabic tree,) with its sweet-scented yellow flower, grows in profusion, both in the woods and plains, as do two kinds of acacia and various other flowering trees. Mulberries are planted in great numbers, and are the means of furnishing a large supply of silk. The cocoa, palmyra, and other palms are common. The first of these yields a nut filled with a milky fluid, and lined with a thick coating of kernel, which is serviceable as food, and on account of the oil which is manufactured from it to a vast extent. The shell is used for cups and other vessels, some of which are in universal use. The thick husk, in which the nut is enveloped, is composed

*This is not the low shrub which bears common cotton, but a lofty tree covered at one time with flowers of glowing crimson, and at another with pods, in which the seeds are encased in a substance resembling cotton, but lighter and more silky in its

texture.

INTROD. of fibres, which form a valuable cordage, and make the best sort of cable. The wood, though not capable of being employed in carpenter's work, is peculiarly adapted to pipes for conveying water, beams for broad but light wooden bridges, and other purposes, where length is more required than solidity. The bamboo, being hollow, light, and strong, is almost as generally useful: when entire, the varieties in its size make it equally fit for the lance of the soldier, the pole of his tent, or the mast which sustains the lofty ensign of his chief; for the ordinary staff of the peasant, or for the rafter of his cottage. All scaffolding in India is composed of bamboos, kept together by ropes instead of nails. When split, its long and flexible fibre adapts it to baskets, mats, and innumerable other purposes; and when cut across at the joints, it forms a bottle often used for oil, milk, and spirits.

The wood of the palm is employed in the same manner as that of the cocoa tree: its leaves also are used for the thatch, and even for the walls, of cottages; while the sap, which it yields on incision (as well as that of the bastard date tree), supplies a great proportion of the spirituous liquor consumed in India.

The mahua (a timber tree of the size of an oak, which abounds in all the forests,) produces a fleshy flower, from which also a great deal of spirit is distilled; while it is still more important as an article of food among the hill tribes. To return to the palms, another beautiful specimen bears a nut,

which, mixed with the pungent and aromatic leaf INTROD. of the bítel vine, and the gum called catechu, is chewed by all classes throughout India. Sago is the produce of another kind of palm.

The mountains of Hémaláya present a totally different vegetation. Pines, oaks, and other forest trees of Europe and Asia, rhododendrons, and many other magnificent shrubs, abound throughout the chain, often on a gigantic scale.

Pepper and cardamums grow in abundance on Spices, &c. the western coast, and cinnamon on Ceylon: capsicum, ginger, cummin, coriander, turmeric, and various other spices are every where a common produce of the fields. We are indebted to India for many well-known aromatics, and the wildest hills are covered with a highly scented grass, the essential oil of which is supposed by some to have been the spikenard of the ancients. Many trees supply medicines - as camphor, cassia fistularis, aloes, &c.; others yield useful resins, gums, and varnishes.

The woods are filled with trees and creepers, bearing flowers of every form and hue; while the oleander, gloriosa superba, and many other beautiful shrubs, grow wild in the open country. The lotus and water lily float on the surface of the lakes and ponds; and there are many sweet-scented flowers, the perfume of which, though otherwise exquisite, is in general too powerful for Europeans. Whole plains are covered with cotton, tobacco, Agriculand poppies for opium; even roses are grown, in

tural

produce.