prosperous! may this famous city be preserved, my most dear country, however it has treated me! may my fellow citizens enjoy peace and tranquillity without me, since I am not to enjoy it with them, though I have procured it for them! I will withdraw, I will be gone.

The fourth and last quality above-mentioned, as necessary to the character of an orator, is modesty. And it is certain, that what is modestly spoken, is generally better received than what carries in it an air of boldness and confidence. Most persons, though ignorant of a thing, do not care to be thought so, and would have some deference paid to their understanding. But he who delivers himself in an arrogant and assuming way, seems to upbraid his hearers with ignorance, while he does not leave them to judge for themselves, but dictates to them, and, as it were, demands their assent to what he says; which is certainly a very improper method to win upon them. For not a few, when convinced of an error in such a way, will not own it, but will rather adhere to their former opinion than seem forced to think right, when it gives another the opportunity of a triumph. A prudent orator, therefore, will behave himself with modesty, that he may not seem to insult his hearers; and will set things before them in such an engaging manner as may remove all prejudice, either from his person, or what he asserts. But, at the same time, firmness and resolution are as necessary as modesty, that he may appear to confide in the justice and truth of his cause. For to speak timorously, and with hesitation, destroys the credit of what is offered; and so far as the speaker seems to distrust what he says himself, he often induces others to do the like.

But, as has been said already, great care is to

be taken that these characters do not appear feigned and counterfeit. For what is fictitious can seldom be long concealed. And if this be once discovered, it makes all that is said suspected, however specious it may otherwise appear. If men always loved truth for its own excellency, it would be sufficient to propose it clearly and plainly; nor would the assistance of art be necessary, in order to induce them to embrace it. But it frequently happens, that truth clashes with what men account their interest, and for that reason they will not regard it. An ungrateful truth will either not be heard, or soon discarded. And many times where persons cannot contradict what is offered, yet, if that contradict their settled opinions, they will still suppose it may not be true. Nor is it a difficult thing for persons to bring themselves to such a belief, while they forbear calmly and seriously to consider the arguments offered on the other side. And since matters are thus, it is often necessary for the orator to have recourse to art, in order to obtain that which otherwise he cannot come at. For this purpose, therefore, it is very serviceable to accommodate his discourse to the temper and inclination of his audience. Nor indeed can any one reasonably hope to succeed in this province without well considering the circumstances of time and place, with the sentiments and dispositions of those to whom he speaks; which, according to Aristotle, may be distinguished four ways, as they discover themselves by the several affections, habits, ages, and fortunes of mankind. ~And each of these requires a different conduct and manner of address.

The affections denote certain emotions of the mind, which, during their continuance, give a

great turn to the disposition. For love prompts to one thing, and hatred to another. The like may be said of anger, lenity, and the rest of them; as I shall show, when I come to treat of them particularly.

Persons differ likewise according to the various habits of their mind. So a just man is inclined one way, and an unjust man another; a temperate man to this, and an intemperate man to the contrary.

And as to the several ages of men, Aristotle has described them very accurately, and how persons are differently affected in each of them. I shall content myself with the substance of what he says, to prevent being tedious. He divides the lives of men, considered as hearers, into three stages;—youth, middle age, and old age. Young men, he says, have generally strong passions, and are very eager to obtain what they desire; but are likewise very mutable, so that the same thing does not please them long. They are ambitious of praise, and quick in their resentments: lavish of their money, as not having experienced the want of it: frank and open, because they have not often been deceived; and credulous for the same reason. They readily hope the best, because they have not suffered much, and are therefore not so gensible of the uncertainty of human affairs; for which reason they are likewise more easily deceived. They are modest from their little acquaintance with the world. They love company and cheerfulness, from the briskness of their spirits; and think well of their friends. They imagine they know more than they do, and for that reason are apt to be too positive. In a word, they generally exceed in what they do,

love violently, hate violently, and act in the same manner through the rest of their conduct.

The disposition of old men is generally contrary to the former. They are cautious, and enter upon nothing hastily; having in the course of many years been often imposed upon, having often erred, and experienced the prevailing corruption of human affairs; for which reason they are likewise suspicious, and moderate in their affections, either of love or hatred. They pursue nothing great and noble, and regard only the necessaries of life. They love money, having learnt by experience the difficulty of getting it, and how easily it is lost. They are fearful, which makes them provident.-Commonly full of complaints from bodily infirmities, and a deficiency of spirits-Please themselves rather with the memory of what is past than any future prospect, having so short a view of life before them, in comparison of what is already gone; for which reason also they love to talk of things past, and prefer them to what is present, of which they have but little relish, and know they, must shortly leave them. They are soon angry, but not to excess. Lastly, they are compassionate, from a sense of their own infirmities, which makes them think themselves of all persons most exposed.

Persons of a middle age, betwixt these two extremes, as they are freed from the rashness and temerity of youth, so they have not yet suffered the decays of old age. Hence in every thing they generally observe a better conduct. They are neither so hasty in their assent as the one, nor so minutely scrupulous as the other, but weigh the reasons of things. They regard a decency in their actions, are careful and industrious; and, as they undertake what appears just

and laudable upon better and more deliberate consideration than young persons, so they pursue it with more vigour and resolution than those who are older.

As to the different fortunes of mankind, they may be considered as noble, rich, or powerful; and the contrary to these. Those of high birth, and noble extraction, are generally very tender of their honour, and ambitious to increase it ; it being natural for all persons to desire an addition to those advantages, of which they find themselves already possessed. And they are apt to consider all others as much their inferiors, and therefore expect great regard and deference should be shown them. Riches, when accompanied with a generous temper, command respect from the opportunities they give of being useful to others; but they usually elate the mind, and occasion pride. For as money is commonly said to command all things, those who are possessed of a large share of it, expect others should be at their beck; since they enjoy that which all desire, and most persons make the main pursuit of their lives to obtain. But nothing is more apt to swell the mind than power. This is what all men naturally covet, even when perhaps they would not use it. But the views of such persons are generally more noble and generous than of those who only pursue riches, and the heaping up of money. A state contrary to these gives a contrary turn of mind; and, in lower life, persons' dispositions usually differ according to their stations and circumstances. A citizen and a courtier, a merchant and a soldier, a scholar and a peasant, as their pursuits are different, so is generally their turn and disposition of mind.

It is the orator's business, therefore, to consider these several characters and circumstances