tions. This mark was the cup Bodov Zevizov of the Greeks, and the tessera hospitalis of the Latins. The außodov was sometimes an astragal, probably of lead, which, being cut in halves, one half was kept by the host, and the other by the person whom he had entertained. On future occasions they or their descendants, by whom the symbol was recognised, gave or received hospitality on comparing the two tallies. Mr. Dodwell found some half astragals of lead in Greece, which had probably served for this purpose.3

The antient Romans divided a tessera lengthwise, into two equal parts, as signs of hospitality, upon each of which one of the parties wrote his name, and interchanged it with the other. The production of this, when they travelled, gave a mutual claim to the contracting parties and their descendants, for reception and kind treatment at each others' houses, as occasion offered. These tesseræ were sometimes of stone, shaped in the form of an oblong square: and to them some critics have supposed that an allusion is intended in Rev. ii. 17. where it is said, To him that overcometh, will I give a white stone, and in the stone a new name written, which no man knoweth, saving he that receiveth it. (Compare, however, p. 113. supra.) In this passage, the venerable translators of our authorised version, by rendering it a white stone, seem to have confounded it with the calculus or small globular stone, which was commonly used for ballotting, and on some other occasions. The original words are

pov Euxov, which do not specify either the matter or the form, but only the use of it. By this allusion, therefore, the promise made to the church at Pergamos seems to be to this purpose:-That the faithful among them should hereafter be acknowledged by Christ, and received into a state of favour and perpetual friendship And

1 The astragal was a bone of the hinder feet of cloven-footed animals. Plin. Nat. Hist. b. xi. c. 45, 46.

2 Jacobi Nicholai Loensis Miscell. Epiphill. p. iv. c. 19. Samuelis Petiti Miscell. b. ii. c. i. Note on v. 613. Euripid. Medea, Eevois Te meμmeiv ovpßod', oi dpaσover

σ' εν.

3 Mr. Dodwell's Classical Tour in Greece, vol. i. p. 519. Plautus, in his play called Pænulus, (act 5. sc. 2.) represents Hanno the Carthaginian, as retaining a symbol of hospitality reciprocally with Antidamas of Calydon; but Antidamas being dead, he addresses himself to his son Agorastocles, and says:

"Si ita est, tesseram

Conferre, si vis, hospitalem-eccam attuli."

Agorastocles answers:

"Agedum hoc ostende, est par probe, nam habeo domum."

To which Hanno :

"O mi hospes, salve multum, nam mihi tuus pater

Pater tuus ergo hospes Antidamas fuit;

Hæc mihi hospitalis tessera cum illo fuit."

Agorastocles proceeds:

"Ergo hic apud me hospitium tibi præbebitur."

"If this be the case, here is the tally of hospitality, which I have brought; compare it if you please.-Show it me; it is indeed the tally to that which I have at home;-My dear host, you are heartily welcome; for your father Antidamas was my host; this was the token of hospitality between him and me; and you shall therefore be kindly received in my house." Ibid, p. 520.

to this sense the following words very well agree, which describe this stone or tessera, as having in it a new name written, which no man knoweth, saving he that receiveth it. For, as the name in the Roman tessera was not that of the person who wrote it, but of his friend who possessed it, so it was only known to the possessor, who doubtless kept it both privately and with great care, that no other person might enjoy the benefit of it, which was designed only for himself and his family.1

1 Ward's Dissertations upon several passages of the Sacred Scriptures, pp. 229— 232. London, 1759. 8vo.

CHAPTER VII.

ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, AND SCIENCES OF THE

HEBREWS.

SECTION I.

AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE OF THE JEWS.

1. Agriculture of the Jews.--II. Manures known and used by them. III. Their mode of ploughing, sowing, and reaping.-IV. Different ways of threshing out Corn.-V. Vineyards, and the Culture of the Vine and Olive.—Gardens.

1. JUDEA was eminently an agricultural country; and all the Mosaic statutes were admirably calculated to encourage agriculture as the chief foundation of national prosperity, and also to preserve the Jews detached from the surrounding idolatrous nations. After they had acquired possession of the promised land, the Jews applied themselves wholly to agriculture and the tending of cattle, following the example of their ancestors, the patriarchs, who (like the Arabs, Bedouins, Turcomans, and numerous tribes of eastern Asia,) were generally husbandmen and shepherds, and whose chief riches consisted in cattle, slaves, and the fruits of the earth. Adam brought up his two sons to husbandry, Cain to the tilling of the ground, and Abel to the feeding of sheep. (Gen. iv. 2.) Jabal was a grazier of cattle, of whom it is said, that he was the father of such as dwell in tents, (ver. 20.), that is, he travelled with his cattle from place to place, and for that end invented the use of tents, which he carried with him for shelter. Abraham and Lot must have had vast herds of cattle, when they were obliged to separate because the land could not contain them (Gen. xiii. 6.); and strifes between the different villagers and herdsmen of Syria still exist, as well as in the days of those patriarchs.1 Jacob also must have had a great number, since he could afford a present to his brother Esau of five hundred and eighty head of catde. (Gen. xxxii. 13-17.) It was their great flocks of cattle which

1 Richardson's Travels along the Mediterranean, vol. ii. p. 196.

2 The following description of the removal of an Arab horde will afford the reader a lively idea of the primitive manners of the patriarchs. "It was entertaining enough to see the horde of Arabs decamp, as nothing could be more regular. First went the sheep and goatherds, each with their flocks in divisions, according as the chief of each family directed; then followed the camels and asses, loaded with the tents, furniture, and kitchen utensils; these were followed by the old men, women, boys, and girls, on foot. The children that cannot walk are carried on the hacks of the young women, or the boys and girls; and the smallest of the lambs and kids are carried under the arms of the children. To each tent belong many dogs, among which are some greyhounds; some tents have from ten to fourteen dogs, and from twenty to thirty men, women and children, belonging to it. The procession is closed by the chief of the tribe, whom they call Emir and Father 57

VOL. III

made them in those primitive times put such a price upon wells. These were possessions of inestimable value in a country where it seldom rained, and where there were but few rivers or brooks, and therefore it is no wonder that we read of so many contests about them.

In succeeding ages we find, that the greatest and wealthiest men did not disdain to follow husbandry, however mean that occupation is now accounted. Moses, the great lawgiver of the Israelites, was a shepherd. Shamgar was taken from the herd to be a judge in Israel, and Gideon from his threshing floor (Judg. vi. 11.), as were Jair and Jephthah from the keeping of sheep. When Saul received the news of the danger to which the city of Jabesh-gilead was exposed, he was coming after the herd out of the field, notwithstanding he was a king. (1 Sam. xi. 5.) And king David, from feeding the ewes great with young, was brought to feed Jacob his people and Israel his inheritance. (Psal. lxxviii. 71.) King Uzziah is said to be a lover of husbandry (2 Chron. xxvi. 10.); and some of the prophets were called from that employment to the prophetic dignity, as Elisha was from the plough (1 Kings xix. 19.), and Amos from being a herdsman. But the tending of the flocks was not confined to the men in the primitive ages, rich and noble women were accustomed to keep sheep, and to draw water, as well as those of inferior quality. Thus, Rebecca, the daughter of Bethuel, Abraham's brother, carried a pitcher, and drew water (Gen. xxiv. 15. 19.), as the women of Palestine still generally do; Rachel, the daughter of Laban, kept her father's sheep (Gen. xxix. 9.); and Zipporah, with her six sisters, had the care of their father Jethro's flocks, who was a prince or

(emir means prince), mounted on the very best horse, and surrounded by the heads of each family, all on horses, with many servants on foot. Between each family is a division or space of one hundred yards, or more when they migrate; and such great regularity is observed, that neither camels, asses, sheep, nor dogs, mix, but each keeps to the division to which it belongs, without the least trouble. They had been here eight days, and were going four hours' journey to the northwest, to another spring of water. This tribe consisted of about eight hundred and fifty men, women, and children. Their flocks of sheep and goats were about five Horses and greythousand, besides a great number of camels, horses, and asses. hounds they breed and train up for sale: they neither kill nor sell their ewe lambs. At set times a chapter in the Koran is read by the chief of each family, either in or near each tent, the whole family being gathered round, and very attentive." Parsons's Travels from Aleppo to Bagdad, pp. 109, 110. London, 1808. 4to.

1 Honourable as the occupation of a shepherd was among the Hebrews, it was as abomination to the Egyptians (Gen. xlvi. 34.) at the time when Jacob and his children went down into Egypt.-From the fragments of the antient historian Manetho, preserved in Josephus and Africanus, it appears, that that country had been invaded by a colony of Nomades or Shepherds, descended from Cush, who established themselves there, and had a succession of kings. After many wars between them and the Egyptians, in which some of their principal cities were burnt and great cruelties were committed, they were compelled to evacuate the country; but not till they had been in possession of it for a period of nine hundred years. This alone was sufficient to render shepherds odious to the Egyptians: but they were still more obnoxious, because they killed and ate those animals, particularly the sheep and the ox, which were accounted most sacred among them. See Bry ant's Analysis of Antient Mythology, vol. vi. pp. 193-211. 8vo. edit.

2 From Hector's address to his horses, it appears that his wife, Andromache, though a princess, did not think it beneath her dignity to feed those animals her. self. Iliad. viii. 185-189.

(which in those times was an honour scarcely inferior) a priest of Midian. (Exod. ii. 16.)

The fixing of every one's inheritance in the family to which it had been appropriated in the first division of Canaan, was doubtless one great reason, which made the Jews chiefly follow husbandry and improve their estates: for though an inheritance might have been alienated for a time, it returned always in the year of jubilee. Their being prohibited also to take any interest from their brethren for the use of money, and the strict injunctions laid upon them by Jehovah, with respect to their dealings and commerce with foreigners, deprived them so much of the ordinary advantages thence arising, that they were in a manner obliged to procure their living from the fruits and produce of the earth, the improvement of which constituted their chief care.

2

II. Although the Scriptures do not furnish us with any details respecting the state of agriculture in Judæa, yet we may collect from various passages many interesting hints that will enable us to form a tolerably correct idea of the high state of its cultivation. From the parable of the vineyard let forth to husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33, 34.) we learn that rents of land were paid by a part of the produce; a mode of payment formerly practised by the Romans, which antiently obtained in this country, and which is still practised by the Italians.3 The soil of Palestine is very fruitful, if the dews, and vernal and autumnal rains are not withheld: but the Hebrews notwithstanding the richness of the soil, endeavoured to increase its fertility in various ways. With the use of manures, the Jews were unquestionably acquainted. Dove's dung (2 Kings vi. 25.) appears to have been very highly valued by the Jews, as to this day it is by the Persians.1 Salt, either by itself, or mixed in the dunghill in order to promote putrefaction, is specially mentioned as one article of manure (Matt. v. 13. Luke xiv. 34, 35.): and as the river Jordan annually overflowed its banks, the mud deposited when its waters subsided, must have served as a valuable irrigation and top-dressing, particularly to the pasture lands. It is probable that, after the waters had thus subsided, seed was sown on the wet soft ground; in allusion to which Solomon says, Cast thy bread (corn or seed)

1 See Plin. Epist. lib. ix. Ep. 37. Horat. Epist. lib. i. Ep. 14. 42.

2 The Boldon Book, a survey of the state of the bishopric of Durham made in 1183, shows what proportion of the rent was paid in cows, sheep, pigs, fowls, eggs, &c., the remainder being made up chiefly by manual labour.

3 See Blunt's Vestiges of Antient Manners and Customs, in Modern Italy, p. 220. London, 1823, 8vo.

4" The dung of pigeons is the dearest manure that the Persians use and as they apply it almost entirely for the rearing of melons, it is probable, on that account, that the melons of Ispahan are so much finer than those of other cities. The revenue of a pigeon-house is about an hundred tomauns per annum; and the great value of this dung, which rears a fruit that is indispensable to the existence of the natives, during the great heats of summer, will probably throw some light upon that passage in Scripture, where, in the famine of Samaria, the fourth part of a Cab of dove's dung was sold for five pieces of silver. 2 Kings vi. 25." Morier's Second Journey through Persia, p. 141. See also Sir R. K. Porter's Travels in Persia, vol. i. p. 451.