Judah the holy, who was born about the time of Akibha's decease, was between fifty and sixty years old when he succeeded his father in the office of Nasi, which he filled until the commencement of the reign of Alexander Severus (about A. D. 240). Meir in the meantime had left Tiberias, a step to which he was probably urged by the treatment he had received from Simon; he died in Asia Minor highly revered. One of his most distinguished pupils whose name was Symmachus was perhaps the same who, having successively embraced heathenism, Christianity, and Judaism, is known to the literary world as the author of a Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures; Simon ben Jochai and Jose left two sons, Eleazar and Ishmael, who became teachers in their stead. But Judah, or as he was called the Rabbi, was raised far above all his contemporaries, by his exalted station, his learning, his wealth, and his favor with the ruling emperor, who was an Antonine, but whether Caracalla or Heliogabalus does not appear. The personal character of the new Nasi was excellent in every particular: in him were united profound learning and singular modesty; al though strict in the discharge of his official duties, he knew how to relax the bonds of discipline on proper occasions; his great wealth was surpassed only by his unbounded beneficence; elevated as was his rank, he was all affability and kindness to his inferiors. By the Jews his memory is held in the profoundest respect; he is regarded by them as a new lawgiver, or rather as the ultimate link in the chain of later Jewish legislation. The principal cause of his being so considered is his collection of laws, formed partly of those already existing and partly of his own, called the Mishnah. As this was indeed a work which united every good quality that could have been looked for in a composition of that period, viz. completeness, conciseness, perspicuity, and considerable regularity of arrangement, it soon cast into ob scurity all former attempts of a similar nature made by private individuals.

The rabbies, who until now had given verbal instruction on the topics which formed the subject of the Mishnah were called Tenaim (from 5, from Chald. : to learn; Heb. D). R. Judah was a highly distinguished Tana; indeed he thought more of his work and his duties as teacher than of his more imposing office as judge. He had a very spacious lecture-room, and near his chair was a small door, through

which he silently came and went. His father had been in the habit of stalking pompously to his seat through ranks of students who rose at his approach; but Judah had no desire to show off the Nasi. At the close of each lecture he was wont to ask the students in turn their opinions on what they had heard, and their objections, if any, and to these he quietly replied; besides this, he publicly taught in the synagogue. In his time the custom was introduced of appointing as assistant to the lecturing rabbi an Amora () or speaker, whose office it was to repeat aloud the other's discourse in the vernacular dialect; by this means the Tana was spared the physical exertion of addressing a large assembly, and at the same time was more certain of being comprehended by all. As the principal topics of these lectures were the Mishnical laws and decisions, the work of R. Judah was subjected to a constant scrutiny that caused several deficiencies to be discovered in it even during his lifetime: frequent transcriptions had given rise to a number of various readings, and some ancient writings were found that had not been previously consulted, and which disagreed with it on some points, as did also several of the later rabbies. Two works were shortly after composed to remedy these faults, called the Bareitha (5) or maxims delivered out of the high school, and the Tosephta (non) or additions to the Mishnah.

The Mishnah now became the rallying point of Judaism. The existence of an oral law, the bare idea of which was not suggested till after the time of the Asmonean princes, was no longer problematical. The rabbies fondly cherished the belief that with the Mishnah they had regained possession of the true doctrines of Moses, and consequently directed all their endeavors towards its completion and elucidation. This circumstance tends to render the Mishnah a highly interesting object of study, since it thus enables us to become acquainted with the whole circle of ideas of the most intelligent men among the Jews in that remote age: in it they discuss the natural history of almost every animal then known; they mention a great number of field and garden plants and fruits, and describe the uses to be made of them, as well as of a multitude of utensils, instruments, and productions of art. These discussions are made without in any degree neglecting the graver questions of civil economy and other matters of like importance; so that a careful examin

SECOND SERIES, VOL. II. NO. IV.

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ation of this work would scarcely fail to be rewarded by the solution of many interesting problems in the archaiology of that period.

Embracing such an extensive range of topics, it is not surprising that the Mishnah in the then scarcity of literary productions became the sole text-book of the schools. It was in fact regarded as the storehouse of all positive knowledge; and that scientific instruction which in former times had been given in connection with the Bible, was now with greater propriety attached to the Mishnah. Consequently the investigation of the reasons on which the decisions of the Mishnah are founded, which afforded a large field for the exercise of their spirit of subtle inquiry, became the favorite study of the rabbies. The ardor with which they gave themselves up to this pursuit soon grew upon them to such a degree that it engrossed their exclusive attention they resigned the practice of the agricultural and mechanical arts which they had heretofore pursued, and were supported in their learned ease by regular salaries or contributions of the people, who, on account of their profession and their secluded mode of living, looked up to them with a respect bordering on veneration. The usual tendency to the abuse of power displayed by those who are placed in situations of authority over their fellow-men, soon became visible in their despotic treatment and noble contempt of the common people, who by the necessity of attending to their daily occupations were precluded from the opportunity of becoming as learned as themselves.

Upon the death of Judah, which took place at Zippor, whither he had retired for the benefit of the pure air of that hilly region, his second son Gamaliel, in compliance with his last will, succeeded him in the dignity of Nasi. Gamaliel's chief counsellors were his elder brother Simon, who received the title of Hacham, and one Chanina ben Chama. These three men, although not deficient in learning, found many to oppose their elevation to these high offices. The first possessed no qualities that could render him worthy of distinction; of the second but little is known; and the third, although he had acquired considerable reputation as a scholar and physician, was chiefly actuated in his conduct by vain and ambitious motives. These circumstances caused many of the scholars formed under the instructions of R. Judah to emigrate to Babylonia, and there establish new

schools, which in a short time rivalled those of Palestine in celebrity. The already diminished power of the head men of Tiberias could not long prevent their overgrown schools from branching off into smaller ones; and at length Zippor and Cesarea began to strive with Tiberias itself for the supremacy, which the latter only retained by continuing to be the abode of the Nasi and consequently the seat of the grand tribunal. The most distinguished individuals of the time were Chanina at Tiberias and Hosea at Cesarea, who are said to have put the finishing hand to the Mishnah as it now exists.

The office of Nasi, which it will be perceived had become hereditary, passed from Gamaliel into the hands of his son Judah. It now retained its secular character alone, and was consequently no longer an object of jealousy to the rabbies, who on their part would not suffer themselves to be controlled by the Nasi. They freely gave their advice and directions to the new ruler, who was young and inexperienced at the time of attaining his dignity, and whose power rested solely on his birth, wealth, and elevated position. In the court he was merely presiding judge; the task of examining causes and reporting the results was resigned to his rabbies, whose salaries he paid out of the fees which he himself collected. This last procedure was a source of great dissatisfaction to them, and at length one Jose of Maon took it upon himself to denounce it as an instance of tyrannical oppression. The Nasi cited him before the court for his bold language, and he fled; but on having his safety guaranteed by two men of standing, Jochanan and Simon ben Lakes, he consented to appear before Judah. The latter, after having put a few questions to him, and received some very laconic and rude answers, dismissed him, without assigning any punishment to his offence. So much were circumstances altered since the time of his powerful grandfather.

The two men Jochanan and Simon ben Lakes above mentioned were intimate friends and strenuous opposers of the Nasi's power. Simon, who in his youth had served as a soldier, and who brought to the employment of teacher all the daring of his former vocation, publicly declared that the Nasi ought to be subjected to corporal punishment for misconduct, like other offenders. The enraged Judah determined to revenge himself on the author of this insult to his dignity. But the day after his bold speech, Simon did not

make his customary appearance in the assembly; and the Nasi accordingly inquired of his friend Jochanan,who sat silent and sorrowful in his place, the reason of Simon's absence. He replied by requesting the Nasi to accompany him on a visit to Simon, for the purpose of effecting a reconcil. iation. Simon received the Nasi with every outward demonstration of respect, but at the same time stoutly expressed his determination to speak his mind on all occasions with perfect freedom. And in truth whenever he felt himself called upon to denounce abuses, he was by no means backward in keeping his promise: thus he publicly censured the Nasi on his accepting a box of gold as a present from a heathen, and again when he appointed an ignorant man to the office of public instructor. On the latter occasion, Judah ben Nachman, whose duty it was to interpret his lectures to the people, openly denounced the transaction before the whole congregation. The Nasi was unable to retaliate, as his power was now by no means equal to the influence acquired by the rabbies.

Jochanan and Simon ben Lakes both enjoyed an enviable reputation. The former was universally admired for his fine personal appearance, his extraordinary learning, and the power imputed to him of working miracles. It appears that he survived his friend, and obtained the dignity of Hacham in the tribunal. As the Nasi was entirely destitute of energy, he remained almost the only authority in matters of rabbinical law. He was a great stickler for forms, and on the occasion of installing two of his most deserving disciples, Ami and Assi, into the responsible office of judge, he gave way completely to his fondness for parade and ceremony. He was notwithstanding a strict rabbinist, and lived in as secluded a manner as Jochanan ben Zaccai, whom he took for his model, and whose stern maxims of morality were continually on his lips. His severity and bitterness were chiefly directed against the corrupted manners of the times, against extravagance and luxury, and against the worldlymindedness of the Babylonians which was daily gaining ground in Palestine. The school at Cesarea had already attained some degree of celebrity, and was now under the direction of R. Abhuhu, a man much respected by the Roman authorities.

About this time the Jerusalem Talmud was composed, the authorship of which is attributed by Maimonides to Jocha