material advancement of the people, to whatever sphere they make betake themselves. Again, in Connaught there are only 4 persons to one acre of potatoes; whereas in Scotland the proportion is 21 persons, and in England 70 persons, to one acre of potatoes; in France it is 13 persons, and in Prussia 6 persons to one acre. In Prussia, however, it must be noted that the root is used to a large extent industrially—in the manufacture of brandy, for instance, which is for the most part exported, the refuse being utilised as cattle-feeding stuff. We may therefore safely say that, as regards the dependence upon this highly fluctuating crop, the Irish at the present day for the proportion of persons to an acre throughout the country does not differ materially from that stated for its western province-are in a position just as dangerous as that which they occupied before the famine, and that the situation is one very materially lower than that of any other civilized people. The average daily wage of a labourer in Connaught, as reported by the inspector of the unions which lie in portions of that province in 1870, was stated to have doubled since 1849; but it was still only from tenpence to a shilling, rising somewhat above that meagre pittance in the hurried times of spring and autumn, and from the increase in the prices of all kinds of provisions the money rate of five shillings per week in the latter period represents no very material advance on the starvation wages of the period immediately succeeding the famine.

When we come to examine into the causes for such an exceptionally impoverished condition as that which exhibits itself generally throughout Ireland, there can be no doubt that amongst and at the head of these must stand the fact that, although the people are almost entirely dependent upon the successful cultivation of the land, almost all inducement to such is taken away when nearly five-sixths

CH. IV.

TENANCIES-AT-WILL IN IRELAND.

89

of the agricultural holdings-527,000 out of 682,000 in 1870-are tenancies-at-will, and, as a fitting corollary, 512,000 out of the same total are (1870) of less value than 151. a year each.

The percentages of tenancies-at-will under 15l. to the total number of holdings at the same value is 84; at 15l. and under 30l., it is 67; at 30l. and under 50l., it is 55; at 50l. and under 100l., it is 41; and at 100l. and upwards, it is 24 only. Here, then, it is manifest that the poorer class of tenants is in a greater degree dependent upon the landlords than the more opulent class.'1 Since that time there has been little change in the nature and extent of the holdings, save that tenants-at-will can now claim, under the Land Act of 1871, compensation, on leaving their farms, for agricultural improvements. The extent to which compensation has already been made is apparently insignificant, being at the rate of only 25,000l. per annum for the five years from 1871 to 1876. Now what has been the change effected in the produce of the country since the famine years? It has been chiefly a substitution of cattle for people. The probable diminution of the population between 1846 and 1876, has been according to the estimate of Mr. Jonathan Pim, president of the Statistical Society of Ireland, no less than 3,000,000 of persons; while cattle have increased from 1,863,116 in 1841, to 4,115,288 in 1875; and sheep from 2,106,189 in 1841, to 4,254,027 in 1875. This change no doubt was largely induced by the abolition of the corn laws; and it seems to be regarded as one upon the whole not detrimental to the interests of Ireland, for it is supposed that green crops and cattle are more suitable to the soil and climate than cereals. The improvement in the condition of the inhabitants of Great Britain during the period referred to has

1 Journal of the Statistical Society of London for March, 1870, pp.

152, 153.

enabled them to live more fully upon meat than formerly, and there has therefore been a relatively increased advantage to the Irish cultivator arising from the increase of cattle. But it is extremely questionable whether the enormous transformation in the character of the cultivation has not been owing in some measure to the undue emigration of the population. Mr. Jonathan Pim says upon this subject in a valuable address delivered at the opening of the thirtieth session of the Statistical Society in 1876 It is to be regretted that the tillage of the country should have so much decreased. The climate is certainly better suited for the rearing of cattle than for the growth of corn; but it seems to me that, even if the rearing and feeding of live stock be the principal object of the farmer, this object will be obtained more profitably by the mixed system of agriculture, in which there will be sufficient tillage to supply him with winter food for house feeding; and this will, I have little doubt, require a greater extent of tillage than at present exists in Ireland. The experience of Scotland fortifies me in this opinion, as I find that while the tillage of Ireland was decreasing, the reverse was taking place in Scotland-the tillage there having increased from 1,996,000 to 2,085,853 acres between 1855 and 1876; and this increase of tillage has been accompanied by an increase of cattle from 974,728 to 1,132,587, and of sheep from 5,694,735 to 6,989,719. There are many thousand acres of waste land in Ireland which, though now of very little value, might become a great source of future wealth if planted; and this is especially the case in the wilder parts of the west where two or three hundred years ago there were extensive forests, though now you may travel for miles without seeing a tree. Trees would not only become a valuable property, but the shelter they afford would improve the adjacent land; and if the pasture and

CH. IV.

CULTIVATION OF CROPS IN IRELAND.

91

tillage lands of the west of Ireland were properly drained and the barren and rocky parts planted, it would, I have no doubt, have an important effect in ameliorating the climate. Under the present defective state of the law there is no inducement to a tenant to plant trees, as has been on various occasions pointed out by members of the Statistical Society; even as respects landlords who are limited owners there are many legal difficulties which greatly lessen the inducements to plant, and which certainly ought in the public interest to be removed.'

If there has been, as we have seen, little or no agricultural advance in England, there has been retrogression in Ireland. Thus there has been a diminution between the years 1851 and 1875 in the cultivation of the various crops as follows:-Wheat has decreased by 345,253 acres, namely from 504,248 to 158,995 acres; oats have decreased by 687,908 acres, namely from 2,189,775 to 1,501,867 acres; barley by 48,714 acres, from 282,617 to 233,903; bere by 52,634 acres, from 53,347 to 713 acres; rye by 10,080, from 19,697 to 9,617 acres ; turnips by 51,010 acres, from 383,548 to 332,538 acres; and flax by 39,362 acres, from 140,536 to 101,174 acres. On the other hand four crops have increased in breadth of cultivation as follows:-Potatoes by 32,085, namely from 868,501 to 900,586 acres; mangel wurzel by 17,294, from 25,847 to 43,141; cabbage by 5,984, from 28,962 to 34,946 acres; and hay by 698,268, from 1,246,408 to 1,944,676. Thus the diminution in the cultivation of cereals amounts to a breadth of 1,144,589 acres (which is equal to about 22 per cent. of the present cultivated area of the country); and the diminution in turnips and flax to an additional 90,372 acres; while potatoes, mangel wurzel, and cabbage are increased by 55,363 acres, and hay by 698,268. It therefore results that while hay now occupies three-fifths of the land formerly employed for

the cultivation of cereals, 481,330 acres have actually been altogether thrown out of cultivation (probably into permanent pasture), an extent equalling about 9 per cent. of the total cultivated area of the country. But it may

be supposed that the energies of the agriculturalists are now concentrated with more success upon the reduced acreage of land which is cultivated; and the doubling of the numbers of cattle and sheep would entitle us to expect, from the doubling of the manure derivable from them, a greater produce per acre than before. We shall therefore examine whether or not this be so. For this purpose we shall consult the estimated average produce per statute acre' of the various crops for the decenniads terminating 1858 and 1875 respectively. The average produce of wheat per acre in the two periods was 13:3 and 126 cwts. respectively, showing a decrease at the rate of 5.3 per cent; for oats the figures are 13.6 and 12.7 cwts., showing a decrease of 6.6 per cent.; for barley 17′0 and 16′2, a decrease of 47 per cent.; bere 16'1 and 157, a decrease of 25 per cent.; rye 179 and 108, a decrease of 40 per cent.; potatoes 4'93 to 3:24 tons, a decrease of 34 per cent.; turnips 151 to 127, a decrease of 15.8 per cent.; mangel wurzel 16·6 to 13°3, a decrease of 20 per cent.; cabbage 131 to 102, a decrease of 22 per cent.; flax 35.8 to 23'5 stones, a decrease of 34 per cent. ; and hay 197 to 186 tons, a decrease of 5.8 per cent. The only crop which shows an increased produce per acre is that of beans and peas, which has increased from 13.6 to 172 cwts., being at the rate of 26 per cent.

If in summarising these results we regard the weights of the respective crops, the result will be that during the last twenty-two years there has been a reduction in the produce of cereals per acre of about 6 per cent., and of root crops

1 See Agricultural Statistics, Ireland, for the year 1875.