ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. All words which are the signs of complex ideas furnish matter of mistake.-Murray's Grammar. EXPLANATION.-It is not intended in this sentence to say all words 'furnish matter of mistake,' but only such words as are 'signs of complex ideas.' The clause, 'which are signs of complex ideas,' restricts or limits the meaning of 'all words,' and hence the relative that should be used. 2. Words, which are signs of ideas, may be divided into nine Parts of Speech. EXPLANATION.-Compare this with the first sentence. You will see that in the second sentence the relative is not restrictive, but explanatory. The sentence means 'all words (and these are signs of ideas) may be divided,' etc. The sentence is therefore correct. 269. Hence the rule: Introduce restrictive clauses by 'that,' explanatory clauses by 'who' or 'which.' 1. 'A spirit more amiable, but less vigorous than Luther's, would have shrunk back from the dangers that he braved and surmounted.' EXPLANATION.-The relative 'that' is correctly used to introduce the clause he braved and surmounted,' because it is not dangers in general that are spoken of, but the particular dangers that he braved and surmounted." 2. Age, that lessens the enjoyment of life, increases our desire of living.-Goldsmith. EXPLANATION.-Here that is incorrectly used instead of which: the clause which lessens the enjoyment of life' is not restrictive, but is explanatory; hence 'age, which lessens,' etc. Particular Applications of the Rule. 270. The following sentences are particular exemplifications of the general principle stated above: (1.) This is the best book that I know of-clause restrictive of superlative degree. (2.) This is the same book that I bought-restrictive clause following the adjective same. (3.) All that he has; Any man that says so; Some people that were there -clauses restrictive of the demonstratives all, any, some. 'That' having mixed antecedents. 271. The relative that is used when the Pronoun has two antecedents, one denoting persons, the other animals or things; as, The man and the dog that we saw. The reason of this is that neither who nor which could properly be used.. 'Which' having a Collective Noun for its antecedents. 272. Which, and not who, is used when the antecedent is a collective noun expressing unity of idea; as, The party which he entertained yesterday was very numerous. 'Whose.' 273. Whose, properly the Possessive of who, is often used, especially in poetry, as the possessive of which, the latter having no possessive of its own. ILLUSTRATIONS. That undiscovered country From whose bourne no traveler returns.-Shakspeare. Mixing Relatives. 274. When you have used which to introduce one relative clause, be careful not to use that to introduce another clause of the same kind in the same sentence. ILLUSTRATION. It is remarkable that Holland, against which the war was undertaken, and that, in the very beginning, was reduced to the brink of destruction, lost nothing. EXPLANATION.-Here the relative which in the first clause should not - have been changed into that in the second clause. Which and That. 275. On account of euphony, that, whenever it can be used, is preferable to which. That with Prepositions. 276. The relative that can not be preceded by its governing preposition; that preposition must be thrown to the end of the clause; as, The steam-boat that I went up the river in was sunk. Whom and Which with Prepositions. 277. The Prepositions governing whom and which may also be thrown to the end of the clause, but modern usage prefers placing them immediately before the relatives. ILLUSTRATION.-Thus it is deemed more elegant to say 'The steamer in which I went up the river' than 'The steamer which I went up the river in.' An Idiomatic Construction. 278. In many cases a much more vigorous and effective statement is made by introducing a clause by that and following it by its governing preposition, than by introducing it by which or whom, preceded by its governing preposition. ILLUSTRATIONS. = 1. He is the stranger of whom you told me He is the stranger that you told me of. 2. The musquito is good for nothing that I know of, is much less pompous than The musquito is good for nothing of which I know. 3. There are many words which are adjectives which have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns to which they are put.-Cobbett's Grammar. This sentence would read better thus: There are many words that are adjectives which have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns that they are put to. 3. 279. Change the turn of expression in the following: 1. The subject, of which I had occasion to speak, is a most important one. 2. He sold me the house of which you have heard. It is the strangest story of which I ever heard. 4. There was nothing upon which a beetle could have lunched. 280. The word as is used as a relative when the antecedent is such, some, and so much. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. I wish all men in the world did heartily believe so much of this as is true.-Jeremy Taylor. 2. Avoid such companions as those are. 3. We are such stuff as dreams are made of.-Shakspeare. Here as is a relative governed by the preposition of at the end of the clause. 4. He is, as I have said, a great lover of books. EXPLANATION. Here as is the object of 'said;' it represents the statement, 'He is a great lover of books.' The sentence is equivalent to this: He is a great lover of books, and I have said this before. Ellipsis of the Relative. 281. In conversational style the relatives are often omitted. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. The family I lived with has removed. Here the relative that is under stood. 2. I have sent you every thing [that] you ordered. 3. He can not tell all [that] he knows. 4. I have no money [that is] worth talking about. 5. Men must reap the things [that] they sow.-Shelley. 6. There is a willow [that] grows askant the bank.-Shakspeare. 7. I may do that which I shall be sorry for.-Shakspeare. 8. I am monarch of all [that] I survey.-Cowper. 9. In this 'tis God [who] directs, in that 'tis man.-Pope. 10. [He] who steals my purse, steals trash.—Shakspeare. Misused Relatives. 282. The following sentences illustrate two incorrect uses of the relatives. 1. Be diligent; without which you can never succeed. EXPLANATION.-In this sentence the only antecedent that the relative which can refer to is the adjective 'diligent;' but from its very nature a relative can represent only a noun, or some expression equivalent to a noun. The way of dealing with this kind of sentence is to use, in place of the relative, an abstract noun expressing the quality implied in the adjective. Thus the adjective diligent' implies the noun diligence.' The sentence corrected stands thus: Be diligent; for without diligence you can not suc ceed. 2. And do you now strew flowers in his way, That comes in triumph over Pompey's blood? EXPLANATION.-Here 'that' has for its antecedent the possessive pronoun his; but 'his' is in reality an adjective, and is a mere adjunct of the noun 'way.' Hence it can not be made the antecedent of the relative that. The mode of dealing with this case is to change the adjective (or possessive) pronoun into a real pronoun; thus,' flowers in the way of him,' etc. Important General Caution. 283. When in a sentence there is the slightest ambiguity or obscurity in the reference of a pronoun to its noun (whether of the relative to its antecedent, or of the personal pronoun to its represented noun), do not hesitate to repeat the noun itself in place of using a pronoun. NOTE.-The best modern writers pay no attention to the old maxim against repeating a word. Every thing must give way to perspicuity. 284. The following sentence exemplifies the principle stated in the general caution: He [Philip] wrote to that distinguished philosopher [Aristotle] in terms the most polite and flattering, begging of him [Aristotle] to undertake his [Alexander's] education, and to bestow upon him [Alexander] those useful lessons which his [Philip's] numerous avocations would not allow him [Philip] to bestow.- Goldsmith. EXPLANATION. This sentence may be corrected thus: 'Philip wrote to Aristotle in terms the most polite and flattering, begging of that distinguished philosopher to undertake Alexander's education, and to bestow upon his son those useful lessons that his own numerous avocations would not allow him to bestow.' 4. Syntax of Adjectives. I. HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES. 285. There are but two uses of the Adjective: 1. It may describe or limit a noun to which it belongs. Adjective with a Noun. 286. An Adjective belonging to a noun is parsed by saying It describes (or limits) the Noun [naming it]. Fills his blue urn with fire. adjective, describes the noun day. ...an adjective, describes the noun urn. Predicate Adjectives. 287. A Predicate Adjective is disposed of by sayingIt is Predicate Adjective after the Verb [naming it], and describes the Subject [naming it]. MODEL.-Oak is tough. 'Tough' is predicate adjective after the neuter verb ‘is,' and describes 'oak.' The rose smells sweet. 'Sweet' is predicate adjective after the neuter verb 'smells,' and describes rose.' 1. 2. Exercise 35. Dispose of the ADJECTIVES. |