It is a people peculiar to the United States, of cosmopolitan derivation, having the customs and habits, the characteristics and idiosyncrasies, of no particular nation, but a conglomeration of all into new and original forms, modified by the requirements of particular localities and by circumstances. The development of trade and commerce, the enormous wealth supplied by the natural resources of the country, have rendered the United States not only self-supporting, but capable of asserting its mighty power for good or for evil in the councils of nations. Its vigorous and ambitious population toils unceasingly, and attracts wealth from abroad; its accumulations of wealth are rapidly making it the financial centre of the world; its rich citizens are of a different stamp from those of European countries, but live luxuriously and revel in all that wealth can purchase; they are assuming the airs of a favoured class, and already some disdain social intercourse with those not rich; the gap between rich and poor is widening, and causes constant bitter comment on the part of the poorer citizens; the necessities of poorer citizens lead to despair and crimes and suicides, all of which might be obviated were the accumulated and accumulating riches of the wealthy class distributed. It is becoming more and more difficult for individuals with limited capital to establish themselves in business, or to save their established business from ruin because of the competition or malicious underselling of wealthy corporations, companies, or monopolists. Money gives power, and is freely used in corrupting those in need of it.

The state legislatures are

somehow subservient to the influential men and wealthy corporations, and so is Congress. Capitalists are unscrupulous in methods of increasing their wealth, and workers are treated as machines and as heartlessly; breadearners and workers combine together in unions in order to fight employers and capitalists, and also seek to starve out non-unionists, and to "boss it" in particular trades or businesses; the numerous strikes of employees, political animosities, and other hindrances, are serious obstacles to business success. The habits and customs, ideas and associations, manner of living and necessities of individual citizens, are very different from what they used to be.

Individual citizens have the theoretical right to assert their inalienable rights at all times and in all places, provided these rights have not been expressly or impliedly qualified by the individual or by others representing him. A good deal of blood is spilt in individual self-assertion, and in those states where it is not unlawful to carry weapons, it is customary for citizens to go about armed. Even where it is unlawful, many carry concealed weapons. The favourite weapon of white men is the revolver; but rifles, knives, and sometimes razors are carried. Negroes are partial to large razors (the blade being stuck in a wooden handle) carried in a sheath. This instrument is very effective at close quarters, especially in a crowd, doing its work unostentatiously and silently. It is impossible to keep count of the innumerable cases of self-assertion by citizens in the way of lynchings, settling quarrels and grievances, and "getting even" by shootings at sight or otherwise, by duels and by

"difficulties" of all kinds involving bloodshed and possibly the death of one or both combatants. Numbers may be involved in these affairs, while they assume the character of a skirmish. Some times the inhabitants of a township, village, or county are arrayed against the inhabitants of neighbouring counties, villages, or townships, and the opposing forces may camp out, and fight battles, and even sieges may be undertaken. In some mountainous parts of Kentucky and of several other states, the white inhabitants are lawless and almost beyond control of the authorities, and it is a matter of great difficulty and danger, if not impossible, to enforce obedience to the law and punish crimes. Fierce and fatal fights frequently occur between the officers of the law and offenders. Brigands and murderers occasionally get elected to fill township and county offices in order the better to terrorise and keep under control such of the inhabitants as are not in league with them. There are men amongst them who have killed ten, twenty, thirty or more men, and go about freely, and the animosity of such men is naturally not aroused by the intelligent citizen who is not confident of getting the first sure drop" on him. The daily newspapers contain long lists of the day's doings in the way of murders, burglaries, thefts, holdingsup of trains, highway robberies, assaults of all kinds with more or less violence to the person, incendiary fires, swindles, embezzlements, such heinous crimes as brought destruction upon Sodom and Gomorrah, indescribable and awful outrages upon women and girls-all indicating that civilisation in the United States is not anything extra, and that the in

alienable rights of others take second place when the individual citizen is in a self-asserting humour.

As politicians, citizens are, generally speaking, gourmands. As patriotic citizens . . . well, patriotism does not require to be paraded by individuals, except upon occasion, and then the patriotism is the screech of the American eagle, whose beak and talons, it must be remembered, are hardening all the time. Very few citizens are statesmen by special training, but they have usually considerable tact, and always that kind of diplomatic skill which has become a second nature in them, and is the growth of social habits and education. All citizens, as a rule, are worshippers of "self." It is the idol of their lives, to which they sacrifice everything. Self-gratification, self-indulgence, self-aggrandisement are sought in every direction, and extracted whenever and wherever possible, regardless of consequences to others, without scruples, without remorse. Next to self, the partisan politician worships his political party, which erects its "self" as an idol to be worshipped, to be served with unswerving fidelity, and supported through thick and thin. Political parties are regularly organised bodies, and may lawfully have members sworn in. Those who do not vote the straight ticket of candidates nominated by their party may not necessarily have to be expelled, but are subject to reproof, or what may be called a mist envelops their influence with the party; and a denser mist falls upon those who offend in a greater degree. No member is permitted to select his own candidates, and those who vote against their party commit political suicide so far as

that party is concerned, and deserters to another party are always looked upon with suspicion. Deserters have been given the name mugwump' as a term of reproach; but these mugwumps have shown backbone, and can probably boast of purer principles, and a desire to assert their inalienable rights as citizens. No assemblage of men can act without some one or more coming or being pushed to the front as spokesmen or leaders; and in like manner, among themselves these leaders give rank to each other. The one acknowledged to be the chief leader is called in America "boss"-in colloquial language any one may be called "boss whom it is wished to flatter in an unobjectionable way. The power and influence of political leaders and bosses are indefinable, and may extend over the United States, or only a little outside of the local sphere. The first step in elections is to hold primaries in townships and villages, and the local leaders of each party put their heads together and select candidates for local offices, whose names are brought before the citizens, members of the party, assembled in primary meeting. The members discuss and vote, and by majority nominate the candidates of their party to be voted for at the coming township election. It then becomes the duty of all members of the party to vote for these nominees of their party. It is true that scandalous wrangles have occurred in primary meetings, and that ill-concealed or open bribery has been resorted to and succeeded in getting nominations.

What

was the secret understanding between the leaders and nominees before the primary meeting is carefully guarded, and can be merely conjectured by subsequent devel

Of

opments. Delegates from all the township and village primaries of each political party meet in convention and nominate their party's candidates for county offices. course it is the case that many of the township leaders and bosses may have little influence in county conventions, and that county leaders and bosses have a much more extensive influence than belongs to any mere village or township boss. In like manner candidates for state and federal offices are nominated by conventions of county leaders and bosses sent as delegates, and thus the reputation and influence of these county leaders and bosses spread all over the state, and begin to get known to the boss magnates, whose influence may be traced in almost every nomination, from that for the lowest township or village office to that for President of the United States. The President and VicePresident of the United States are the nominees of these magnates sent as delegates to special conventions held for the nomination of the President and Vice-President. Of course these delegates are most of them but small magnates, but the great boss magnates are delegates. The real governing power in the United States is held by this irresponsible oligarchy, composed of the greatest of the political bosses. The President is a figurehead under control of these great bosses of his political party. These great bosses are naturally very able men, of sufficient capacity and force of character to take and retain the position they hold not only among the many millions of their fellow-citizens who support their party, but in the face of every conceivable opposition, detraction, and unscrupulous accusations on the part of political ad

versaries, and the envy, hatred, and malice of the ungodly.

There are several recognised political parties in the United States-the Republican, the Democratic, the Abolitionists (temperance), the Labour, the Farmers, the Women's Rights, and others of less note; but the Republican and the Democratic parties have hitherto alone succeeded in elect ing members of their respective parties to be President and VicePresident of the United States.

It seems inconsistent for the citizen possessed of inalienable rights to remain perfectly passive in the thraldom of political bosses who enforce implicit obedience, and cause the political machine to crush all individual inalienable rights into resounding nothingness. Individual rights are the food of this insatiable monster, but ought to form an impenetrable shield under which the citizens should dwell in the enjoyment of the greatest happiness attainable upon earth. Instead of bringing happiness, the rival machines embitter the lives of citizens, act as disturbers of their common weal, clothe and feed hosts of public leeches, whose vocation is a curse to mankind, and cause endless trouble and mischief and crime of all kinds. Political machines are the great American Juggernauts, and priests and Levites, and all concerned therewith, practise the principle of diamond cut diamond, not only in politics, but in outside matters. The individual man is, in the United States, worked harder and meets with less consideration than in any other country. Those who show sympathy are scoffed at or imposed upon. Works of charity are perverted into bribes to attain some selfish and maybe evil end.

Honesty of purpose is at a discount. Goodness of heart and of deeds is reckoned hypocritical. Credit is not given, and those who have not good clothes or money are very generally treated as useless tramps or suspects, to be driven out of the world. The New World is a bed of thorns to thousands of deserving poor; but the march of modern civilisation progresses around the world, and America is merely a steppingstone in the way of the Israelites on their return to the Holy Land.

Very few children are destined from infancy to lives of ease and luxury without being called upon to take an active part in business affairs. Whatever the future may seem to promise, however vast their fortunes, and however safely their wealth may seem to be invested, or their pecuniary wants provided for, it is the custom of all citizens to educate at least the boys in business habits, as bankers, lawyers, brokers, or anything else, so that they may be fitted, when of proper age, not only to look after their inheritance, but, if so inclined, to take an active part in business or in politics, and to feel that the door is open to them to figure as prominently in their circles as their capacities warrant. The vicissitudes of lives are so great and so sudden, and very often quite unavoidable, that a man or a woman may be worth millions of dollars to-day and penniless to-morrow, or a penniless person become suddenly possessed of millions. It seems easy and proper for any one to change his manner and style of living as it pleases himself or falls in with his circumstances; and a change of vocation, be it from one profession to another, from profession to business, or business to trade, or one

trade to another, or vice versa, is made whenever prompted by circumstances, self-interest, or other personal motives. If success is not met in one place, another is tried-and changes of place and vocation are made until success is won, or despair of success creeps over the unfortunate one and brings the battle to an end. Honest labour of all kinds does not lower man, and the citizens recognise this fact, and do not spurn any one with contempt. Exceptions prove this rule. Foreign born citizens can rise to any official position except those of President and Vice-President of the United States; and any native-born citizen, however lowly his birth or upbringing, is eligible to rise to every office, including those of VicePresident and President.

The limits of the field open for women to work in are being constantly extended, and it may come to pass that the President of the United States shall be a woman. Some short time ago a petition was presented for the appointment of a woman to fill a vacancy upon the bench of the Supreme Court of the United States. Women have served in many official positions, and since they can acquire the necessary professional education, there is no saying what position they may not aspire to and attain in the United States. It may seem a calumny upon the male sex, but it is a question whether the women of the United States have not shown business aptitude and other qualities sufficient to rank them quite as high as men in most of those occupations which men used to claim could be handled only by The manner in which boys and girls are brought up together, and go to school together, until of an age when a greater amount

men.

of mischief than does take place would result were they not separated, and the never-broken free social intercourse between them, no doubt tends to educate the girls in the ways of the world, in the twists and turns of both female and masculine minds and resources, to give self-confidence and readiness to parry home-thrusts, to give return thrusts, and to enable them to conceal their feelings and purposes, and to detect the feelings and purposes of others, and generally to hold their own against all comers. But there are drawbacks and consequences which may wreck the whole future lives of the girls, and the greater part of the enormous number of divorces are, it is believed, attributable to lapses in behaviour or to habits formed long before marriage, which cause both man and wife to look with indifference upon matters involving strict moral principles. And the boys, on their part, gather feminine ways, and acquire more or less tact, and learn to exercise diplomacy in intercourse with others; they become ready and fluent talkers, and learn to conceal their motives and to excuse themselves so as to escape detection. When they get older and go into business, they are ready to become travellers, canvassers, anything, and can make speeches upon almost any subject, although their information be shallow and inexact, and chiefly derived from newspapers. They lack, very many of them, sincerity of purpose, and are gay deceivers and Lotharios. In a celebrated case affecting the sanity or insanity of a merchant, one of the witnesses stated upon oath that it was certainly the habit, and, he believed, absolutely necessary, for all "drum" and business men to lie and lie and lie—that he himself lied as

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