tinguished by somewhat violent contests respecting the indemnities to be granted to the nobility for the abolition of those immunities, in point of taxation, which they had hitherto enjoyed.

The session of the States of the kingdom of the Netherlands,assembled in the preceding year, was continued through the earlier part of the present. The King, having been unable to procure in time their consent to the budget of 1818, issued a proclamation continuing the taxes of 1816, till their place was supplied by a new law; a stretch of power which seems to us somewhat strange, but to which no objections were made. On the 6th February 1818, the States gave their consent to the new law, by which the expences were stated at 7,400,000l. sterling; the receipts at 6,750,000l., leaving a deficit of 650,000l. to be made up either by loan, or by sale of the national domains. The King then procured the consent of the States to a very severe law, destined to repress the violent attacks made in writing against the allied powers, and particularly France, which had called forth vehement remonstrances. A fine of 30%, to 50% was imposed upon all concerned in the publication of articles personally offensive to any foreign power or sovereign, calling in doubt the legitimacy of their dynasty, and of their government, tending to trouble the tranquillity of their states, to excite to disobedience and revolt. In the budget for 1819, a saving of 130,000l. was effected by military reductions, and the revenue was brought nearly to the level of the expenditure. In the discussion, complaints were made, that the expence of collecting the revenue, which, in England, is only 5 per cent, amounted with them in some instances, to 40 and 50 per cent. The budget was, however, carried. Very great difficulties were felt in amalgamating the two portions of

which the kingdom of the Netherlands was composed, differing entirely as they did; one agricultural and manufacturing, the other commercial; one Catholic, the other Protestant; one attached to France, the other hostile to it. It was estimated that the number of Catholics was 4,100,000; of Protestants, only 1,300,000; yet the provision for the former was 180,000!., for the latter 130,000. The very difference of language was a ground of controversy; and it was necessary to admit the use of both in the debates of the States-General. The government made considerable exertions to conciliate its new subjects, by founding agricultural societies, and other useful establishments, and by sending colonies to clear uncultivated lands. These measures, however, were not sufficient to allay the irritation which prevailed in men's minds.

Poland presented this year a somewhat striking spectacle, the forms of a free government granted by the most despotic of the European powers. The Emperor Alexander had always some liberal ideas floating in his mind, which, imperfect as they have proved, did some credit to one nursed in the heart of such a lawless despotism. In his conduct towards Poland, he has shewn a sense of the wrongs inflicted by his ancestors, and some wish to repair them. He even caused the ashes of her hero Kosciusko, to be transported into Poland, and interred in the citadel of Cracow. now erected Poland into a kingdom, and bestowed on it the form of a repre. sentative constitution. This kingdom of Poland, however, was very different from that which, under Sigismond and Sobieski, gave law to the east of Europe. Russia threw into it none of the extensive territory severed by the suc cessive partitions. The portions carried off by Austria and Prussia, remained equally detached. It consisted, therefore, almost solely of the duchy of War.

He

saw, and did not comprise a fourth part of the original Poland. However, it presented still a name and shew of the former kingdom. The Viceroy Zayonzeck was a native Pole, had been the companion in arms of Kosciusko, and had even fought under Buonaparte. The national representation is, we believe, independent of the crown, though on too aristocratic a footing. The deputies of the nobles amount to 77, those of the commonalty to 51. The position too, close by their side, of a Russian army of 40,000 men, could not be very favourable to the freedom of delibera tion. The Emperor arrived at Warsaw on the 13th March, and on the 27th opened the diet in person. In his opening speech, he indirectly alluded to the hostile attitude in which Poland had placed herself against Russia. He de clares, that all this is now sunk in sincere and complete oblivion. He tells them, however, that their destiny is in dissolubly united with that of Russia; and that their utmost care must be directed to extend this salutary union. He then pointed at the blessings arising from those liberal institutions "which have not ceased to be the object of my solicitude, and of which I hope, with the blessing of God, to extend the salutary influence over all the countries entrusted by Providence to my care. Prove," said he, " to your cotemporaries, that those liberal institutions, the ever sacred principles of which are by some confounded with those subversive doctrines, which, in our days, have menaced the social system with a frightful catastrophe, are not a danger ous phantom: but that, brought into genuine action, and directed with purity of intention towards objects useful to humanity, they are perfectly consistent with order, and produce, by common agreement, the true prosper ity of nations."

When the Emperor had concluded, Count Mostowski, minister of the in

terior, submitted to the assembly a view of the state of the kingdom. The population, which, in 1810, amounted to 3,300,000, had, by the calamities of war, been reduced to about 2,600,000. Within the two last years, it had greatly revived, in consequence of the security of person and property, the privileges and exemptions granted to the industrious, and the numerous foreign colonists who had been induced to fix their abode in the kingdom. The minister then stated the arrangements made in regard to the church, by which special immunities had been granted to the Catholic clergy, without encroaching on the rights or revenues of the other sects. Public instruction had also been provided for by the opening of the library, and of various museums, while great attention had been paid to bring the elements of popular instruction to the level of all classes. At Warsaw, and at Lublin, schools on the Lancastrian system had been established, which would be rapidly extended in the following years. The budget, which forms usually the leading object of deliberation in a representative assembly,was not even brought on the carpet, though it was announced, that, according to every probability, it would be laid before the diet the next session.

Russia published this year a statement of her finances, which were in the same disordered state as those of the other great powers. Her regular

debt amounted to about 100,000,000 of roubles, borrowed in Holland, and of a paper called Bank assignats, amounting to the immense sum of 214,000,000 of roubles. The grand object was to reduce this last amount, which pressed most heavily on the people, and to convert it by loans into a regular debt. A loan, already opened on the 30th July 1817, had enabled the government to take up 30,000,000 of assignats. The success of this mea

sure induced the ministry to open a new loan, to which every person who brought 85 roubles should have in scribed in the great book 100 roubles at 6 per cent. So satisfactory were these terms considered, that before the end of the year, government were enabled to take up 63,000,000 of assig nats, which were immediately burned. In Sweden, this year was distinguished by the death of Charles XIII. the nominal king, and the succession of Bernadotte to the entire sovereignty, under the title of Charles XIV. Considerable apprehensions were entertained, that this event might give rise to some commotion, and that an attempt might be made to restore the legitimate dynasty. The event, however, took place without any commotion. As soon as the monarch had rendered his last breath, Bernadotte caused himself to be acknowledged as King, and took before the Council of State an oath to observe the constitution. He continued till late at night receiving the oaths of the Council, of the Generals, of the officers of the Court, and of the principal authorities, civil and military. Next day, he issued a proclamation to the people; and on the day after, went to the Diet, when he renewed his oath, and received that of the States. The Emperor of Russia, who, alone of any foreign power, might have been suspected of some partiality to the old dynasty, was no sooner apprised of the new King's succession, than he wrote a letter, expressing in the warmest terms his regard and good wishes.

On the 5th August, the King set out for Christiana, to be crowned sovereign of Norway. This country had reaped some advantages by its unjust transference from the Danish to the Swedish dominion. The King had given them a free constitution, and had restored the Storthing, or ancient representative assembly. This measure, however, had not given universal satis

faction. The peasantry complained, that the citizens and mercantile classes possessed the sole sway in this assembly, and ordered all things for their own particular interest. The bad harvest, and the stagnation of agriculture, inflamed their discontents. Assembling to the number of about 1200, they marched tumultuously into Christiana, to demand that the King should dissolve the Storthing, and govern in an absolute manner, as the Kings of Denmark had done. A small armed force was sufficient to disperse them, and to make prisoners of the ringleaders, who were detained for several months. The harmony, meantime, between the King and the Storthing was far from complete. His great object in every mea sure, was to render entire the union between the two countries; theirs, to preserve the separation. They negatived even, by a majority of 67 to 5, the proposition of sending a deputation to welcome him on his entrance into the country.

Proceeding to the farthest extremities of Europe, and of the civilized world, we come to the Turkish empire. Its history, during this year, was chiefly distinguished by the progress of the war against the Wahabis, a daring and fanatical race, who had seized the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, laid waste the eastern frontier of Syria, and even threatened Damascus. Ibrahim, however, son of the Pacha of Egypt, pushed the war with such vigour, that Ibn Saoud, their chief, was compelled to throw himself, with the main body of his troops, into Deraieh, his capital, situated in the heart of Arabia. It made a long and obstinate resistance, till at length, on the 7th October, a general assault took place, when Deraieh was taken by storm. Twenty thousand Wahabis are said to have perished; the chief himself, with his family and his treasures, fell into the hands of the victors. He was

conducted to Cairo, where the victory was celebrated with boundless rejoicings. The captive chief was then dispatched to Constantinople, where, after being led in triumph through a number of the streets, he was put to death.

Revolts took place also this year in the provinces of Trebisond and Merdin, on the eastern frontier; but their suppression was soon announced by the heads of the ringleaders, suspended in great numbers from the gates of the Seraglio.

While these prosperous events were taking place abroad, Constantinople itself was the theatre of serious disturbances. These took their origin from the Sultan making the attempt, so often abortive and fatal to its authors, of placing the military and political systems on a footing with those of other European powers. The Janizaries were particularly dissatisfied with the attempts to subject them to regular discipline. Whenever the people of

Constantinople are dissatisfied, they shew it by setting the city on fire. This proof was given during the present summer, so violently and repeatedly, that Constantinople was in danger of being reduced to ashes. On one of these occasions, Prince Ypsilanti's mother, three of his wives, and several of his children, perished in the flames. At the greatest of these conflagrations, which took place on the 13th August, the Sultan having, according to ancient usage, hastened to the spot, was assailed with such seditious cries, that he judged it necessary to return. The conduct of the government, however, was firm and moderate. The only concession was the dismissal of the Captain Pacha, and the sending out of the city all the elephants, whom popular superstition supposed to be animals of evil omen. Several persons, suspected of having instigated these disturbances, were banished, and one put to death. Thus, tranquillity was at length restored.

DURING the year 1818, the war in South America does not appear to have made any perceptible progress to its termination. The steadiness and discipline of the royalist troops gave them, no doubt, in the field, many advantages over the brave but disorder ly levies to which they were opposed. But these advantages were counterbalanced by other circumstances, by the ardent zeal of the patriotic troops, and their devotion to their chiefs, by their rapid movements also, and by the ease and celerity with which they always continued to recruit their wasted force, and to re-appear in the field, even after a defeat, in greater strength than before. Hence the lingering and indecisive character of this destructive war, which victory and defeat seems alike to protract. At the conclusion of the year 1817, the successes of the independent chiefs had enabled them to occupy the open country; and the royalist troops were in consequence chiefly confined to the coast towns. From these, however, they were unable to expel them; while,

on the other hand, the royalist troops were equally unable to drive from the open country, in a great degree wild and unsettled, and not easily accessible, the bold and desultory bands by which it was maintained. Óf the loose and irregular warfare which marked the commencement of operations, we are but imperfectly informed; nor would it indeed be interesting, even if we possessed the materials for such a task, to enter into a detail of all the numerous skirmishes, and unconnected adventures, which took place in the course of this desultory contest. We prefer, if possible, to give a general sketch of such events as appear to have produced decisive results; although we must fairly confess, that after all our research and inquiry, we are not so well provided as we could wish with the necessary information.

The campaign, which appears to have been uncommonly active, opened in December, when General Zazara, as already mentioned, was defeated by the royalists, near Calabozo. The number of slain in this battle amount